Philosophy and design: From engineering to architecture

philosophy and design

Pieter E. Vermaas • Peter Kroes Andrew Light • Steven A. Moore

Philosophy and design from engineering to architecture

Pieter E. Vermaas Delft University of Technology Delft The Netherlands

Peter Kroes Delft University of Technology Delft, The Netherlands

Andrew Wright University in Washington in Seattle

Steven A. Moore University, Austin, United States

ISBN 978-1-4020-6590-3

E-ISBN 978-1-4020-6591-0

Congress Library Control Number: 2007937486 © 2008 Springer Science + Business Media B.V.No part of this paper should be reproduced in any form or in any way, store in a search system or otherwise reproduce without a written permission of the publisher expansion, unless any material that is particularly insured for entry and exit to a computer system, is solely for the use of a buyer of the work.Printed on beskin paper.9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Springer.com

content

List of associates ................................................ ............................................... ...................................

Nine

Design in Engineering and Architecture: Towards a Comprehensive Philosophical Understanding ... .Pet Er Kroes, Andrew Light, Steven A. Moore, and Pieter E. Vermaaes

PART I ENGINEERING DESIGN, USE AND PHYSICAL AND INTENTIONAL ASPECTS OF THE CONSTRUCTION PRODUCT................................... .. ................................................... ..... ................ Martin Franson

Design develops a plan of use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wybo Houkes

Designer fallacy and technical imagination.. ...................

Technical design is an evolutionary process.....................Philip bray

Identify the moral issues in engineering design.EssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceEssenceAnke Van Gorp and Ibo Van de Poel

Moral in design: Design ethics and technical relic morality ... .............................

Design Thinking: Key Technical Theory and Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

six

content

Design culture and acceptable risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. philosophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . as a bridge over the culture/technology dichotomy. . , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . Cyborgs, a desirable goal? . Warwick Human Design: A Posthuman Future? .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : Structure, process and function: Methodological perspective of the system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Kristo Miettinen Co-designing social systems by designing technological artifacts: a conceptual approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the role of intention and moral responsibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Kathryn A. Neeley and Heinz C. Luegenbiehl Design and Responsibility: The Interdependence of Natural, Artificial, and Human Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

content

seven

The third part is the form and process of architectural design in the transformation of the social roles of architects. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , . and Public Choice: Architectural Renderings as Realist Processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Steven A. Moore and Rebecca Webber Diverse Design: Discovering the Function and Intent of Artifacts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design some thoughts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : Building natural cities. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... 355

list of collaborators

Philip Brey is an associate professor of philosophy and the director of the Center for Philosophy of Technology and Engineering Science at the University of Twente.He is also a member of the Committee of the Society of Philosophy and Technology and the International Society for Ethics and Information Technology.His research is focused on the philosophy of technology, especially the philosophy and ethics of information technology.Ted Cavanagh is an architect with a doctorate in technology history and the dean of the Faculty of Architecture at Clemson University in South Carolina.Its research of the culture of technological innovation is focused on historical and contemporary wooden structures.His work is both written and constructed.Daniela Cerqui is a sociocultural anthropologist interested in the relationship between technology and society (and, more importantly, people).He teaches at the Institute of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Lausanni (Switzerland), where he deals with teaching and exploring new information technologies and "information society" that they should create.She recently conducted two years in research at the Cibernetics Department at Reading University.Noam Cook is a professor of philosophy at San Jose State University.His publications, research and counseling interests are focused on social and technological changes, a relationship between knowledge and practice and applied value.He spent ten years as a scientific advisor at Xerox Parc.Since 1997 he has been a member of the San Francisco Symphony Choir.(Ba, ma, San Francisco State University, Ph.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology).Howard Davis is a professor of architecture at Oregon University and author of the book Building Culture, a book on the social framework of design of buildings and construction process.His current research is focused on the typology of urban architecture of mixed purpose and its role in a diverse economy.Inmaculada de Melo-Martín, Ph.D., Mphil Biology, is an ethics researcher at the Medical Ethics Department at the Weil Cornell medical college.She is the author of the book Making Babies: Biomedical Technology, Reproductive Ethics and IX

list of collaborators

Public Policy (Kluwer, 1998), takes biology seriously: When it comes to matters of morality and public policy, biology can tell us what it cannot tell us (Rowman and Littlefield, 2005). Her current work focuses on ethical issues that related to genetic research. Andrew Feenberg (Andrew Feenberg) is the Chair of Technical Philosophy in the School of Communication at Simon Fraser University. He has led the implementation of communication and technical laboratories. He has written or edited more than 10 books, including Technical Critical Theory (Oxford University Press, 1991), Alternative Modernity (University of California Press, 1995), Technology of Inquiry (Lautery, 1999) and Hyde Gel and Marcaca: Routledge 2005 in Disaster and History. Patrick Feng is an assistant professor at the Calgary School of Communication and Culture. His research has focused on the social impact of new technologies and policies formulated by international standards. He has studied the design and use of scientific and technical standards in information technology, health and food security. Maarten Franssen is an associate professor at the Department of Philosophy at Daerph University of Technology. He has published articles on the standardization of functional modeling and decision-making methods in social technology systems. His extensive research interests include rational theory and action and its application in technical design and implementation, as well as technical concepts and basic issues related to system and functional concepts. Craig Hanks served as a Philosophical Visiting Professor in 2006-2007 during a sabbatical at Texas State University. He has won six outstanding teaching awards, including his works include works on architectural ethics, biotechnological ethics, biological philosophy, technical philosophy, artistic philosophy, and political philosophy. His new book Technological Muscle: Reflections on Technologies and Values and New Volumes of Technology and Values were published in 2007. Wybo Houkes is an assistant professor in the department of history, philosophy and technologies at the Eindhoven University of Science and Technology. He participated in the NWO research plan "The Dual Nature of Technical Artificial Products" and published an article on the use of functional theory and intention in the use and design of artificial products. His current research interests include the nature of technical knowledge, the ontology of artificial products and the application of the theory of evolution in engineering artificial products. Don Ihde is an associate professor of philosophy at Shixi University and director of the research team for technical sciences at Shixi University in New York. He has 20 books and editors. Recently published "Extension Interpretation: Visualism in Science" (1998); Organ Technology (2003); Co -A -AUTHOR with Evan Selinger, Chasing Technoscience: Matrix for Matrixity (2003.His current work includes the application of imaging technology and the application of advanced imaging and analysis technology to the humanities.

list of collaborators

habit

Peter Kroes launched an analytically oriented technical concept and helps develop DELPH technical technology by focusing on technological practice. It is the most important occupation, the essence of technical cultural relics and social technology systems, as well as the theory of related functions and working parts. Philosophy of philosophy and private philosophy of the University in Hamburg, and held a research fellowship at the Institute for Evolution and Cognitive Research at the Altenberg Institute in Austria. kind.With John O'Neill and Alan Holland, co-edited for Routledge of Van Milevree (2007) and 16 books, including Everyday Life, Aesthetics (Columbia, 2005) Morality and Political Reasoning, MIT (MIT (MIT (MIT ( MIT MIT, 2003)) at MIT (MIT (MIT, 2003)? (Chicago, 2000). He is currently studying a book on morality and recovery -cology. Heinz C. Luegenbiehl studies philosophy and technology. It is an international Technical Code of Ethics. Use of images and interpretation as a function of engineering parameters. Steven Moore is the Bartlett Cocke Professor of Architecture at Bartlett Cocke, Austin, Texas. In Sortsas, he is Texas Center, Texas Center, Texas Center, Texas Center, Texas, Texas Center, Texas Center for the underground Texas, Texas restrained Texas Center Texas Center Texas Center Texas Center Center from Texas Center Center from Texas Center Texas Center Texas Center of Texas Center Texas, Director Center of Texas Center of Texas Center, Texas, Texas, Texas Maintenance Center, Vest Maintenance Center in Custer, Texas Center, Texas, Texas Victoria Center, Texas, Texas Center, Victoria, Victoria Center, Texas , Texas, Texas, Texas State Victoria Center for Maintenance Dexas Center for Sustainable Development: Moore has many articles and four of these books on sustainable architecture and urban design. Kiyotakanuo is an associate professor at the Department of Philosophy at Northeast University in Japan. Interests include contemporary philosophy and scientific philosophy and technology on land. His recent research is an exploration and moral exploration of technical actions, particularly the relationship between technology and the body. Cathryna. Neeley is a University Lecturer at the University of Virginia Science, Technology and Social Wells. She is the author of Mary Sommerville: Science, Illumination and Women's Thought published by Cambridge, as well as David Ollis and David Ollis and Heinz (David Ollis and Heinz Luegenbiehl) have been published together.

xii

list of collaborators

21st Century Engineering: A Response to ABET 2000. Her research focuses on the aesthetic dimension of scientific and engineering practice. Alfred Nordmann is a professor of philosophy and history of science at the Technical University of Darmstadt. In recent years, he has focused on the convergence of nanoscience and enabling technologies. He not only wants to understand how they affect society and how they change the understanding of technology itself, but primarily sees them as symptoms of more general changes in research practices and cognitive values. Glenn Parsons is a member of the Department of Philosophy at Ryerson University in Toronto, Canada. His main research interest is the role of scientific knowledge in the aesthetics of nature. His articles have been published in the British Journal of Aesthetics, the Journal of Aesthetics and Art Review, and the Canadian Journal of Philosophy. He is currently writing a book on the aesthetics of nature. Joseph C. Pitt is Professor of Philosophy and Adjunct Professor of Science and Technology Studies at Virginia Tech. He graduated from the College of William and Mary with an M.A. and a Ph.D. from the University of Western Ontario. He is the author of three books, The Picture, The Image, and The Change of Ideas; Galileo, The Book of Human Knowledge and Nature; and most recently, Reflections on Technology. His research interests relate to the impact of technological innovation on scientific change. Bernhard Rieder is a postdoctoral student and lecturer at the Department of Hypermedia at the Université Paris VIII. He worked as a web developer and published works on the relationship between technology and culture. Current research interests include semantic computing, collaborative culture, and the epistemology, methodology, and ethics of software design. Mirko Tobias Schäfer is a junior lecturer/researcher at the Department of Media and Cultural Studies at the University of Utrecht. He studied theatre, film and media studies and communication studies at the University of Vienna, Austria, and digital culture at Utrecht University, the Netherlands. He is currently writing a thesis on collective and participatory production in user communities and cultural industries. Colin Schmidt is an expert on the epistemology of artificial intelligence and natural intelligence and their relationship. As such, he is interested in human-computer interaction, humanoid robots and novelties in communication. To advance his research agenda, he draws on prevalent concepts in the philosophy of mind and language, such as intentionality, reference, and classification. Often anthropological in nature, his approach was always deliberately experimental and terminological. John P. Sullins (Ph.D., Binghamton University (SUNY), 2002) is an associate professor at Sonoma State University in California. His recent research interests include robotics, artificial intelligence, and artificial life, and how these technologies affect traditional philosophical topics concerning life and mind, as well as their implications for society and the ethical design of successful autonomous machines.

list of collaborators

Thirteen

Paul B. Thompson holds the W.K. Kellogg in Agriculture, Food and Community Ethics at Michigan State University. He was a former president of the Society for Philosophy and Technology. The second edition of his book Ethical Perspectives on Food Biotechnology was published in 2007, and he co-edited a book entitled What Can Nanoscale Learn from Biology? Nanotechnology Lessons from the Food Biotechnology and GMO Debate is planned to be published in 2008. Ibo van de Poel is Assistant Professor of Ethics and Technology at Delft University of Technology and 3TU, Center for Ethics and Technology. His research focuses on ethical issues in engineering design, technological risk, and research and development networks. See http://www.tbm.tudelft.nl/webstaf/ibop/ for more information. Anke Van Gorp is a researcher and consultant in the Innovation Policy Group at TNO-Quality of Life. She has a master's degree in materials science and engineering and a doctorate in ethics and technology. She has published several articles on ethics and engineering design. Her current interests are ethics and innovation and philosophy of technology. Peter-Paul Verbeek is Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University of Twente in the Netherlands and Director of the International Master's Program in Philosophy of Science, Technology and Society. He has published articles on the human relationship to technology, technological design, and the social and cultural role of technology. One of his research interests is the moral relevance of technological artifacts and their implications for ethical theory and the ethics of technological design. Pieter E. Vermaaes is a researcher at Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. He has published works on the philosophy of technology, the theory of technological function, design methods, and the application of quantum mechanics in nanotechnology. His current research focuses on functional decomposition, the decomposition of functions into subfunctions, in engineering design. Kevin Warwick is Professor of Cybernetics at the University of Reading, UK, where his research focuses on artificial intelligence, control, robotics and cyborgs. He is also the director of the university's KTP center, which connects universities with small and medium-sized enterprises. In addition to publishing 500 research papers, Kevin is probably best known for being the first to connect a chip to the nervous system. Rebecca Webber graduated from Smith College and received her Masters in Sustainable Design from the University of Chicago in Texas. Her research examines how public environmental and energy policies affect the built world.

Technology and Architectural Design by Peter Kroes, Andrew Light, Steven A.

present

The current collection of papers provides an overview of the current work of philosophers and ethicists on design processes and their products. We've put together a series of articles on topics that aren't usually discussed together. The book contains essays on engineering and architecture, focusing on a wide range of fields, from cars to software, from nanoparticles to cities, and from buildings to people. As such, this book deals with the ambiguity inherent in the general term "design," and we will consider "the transformation of an existing situation into a desired situation" in the broadest possible sense. to shape. In all respects, this allows us to view the broad categories of design as activities with a common base, albeit with different meanings. One of the conclusions that can be drawn from these articles is that new developments in the field of engineering enable a more integrated understanding of engineering and architectural design, two fields of design that were considered too far apart to be compared. But in these chapters, engineering is described as an activity, not just the assembly of physical products. Due to the emergence of new technological possibilities and the increasing demands of society for technological implementation, engineers are forced to think about the interaction between the physical products they produce and human agents. This is a well-known observation of philosophers and ethicists. The philosophy of technology, which emerged as a separate field after the Second World War, was initially concerned with the social consequences of technology, and now more so

P. Kroes, Daerph A. Light Technology University, University of Washington, S. A. Moore, University of Texas P. E. Vermaas, Daerph University of Technology 1

Šimun (1972, 55).

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

P. Kroes et al.

The metaphysics and epistemology of specific technologies have always focused on the way technology shapes personal life and a range of social systems.2 This kind of attention has now extended to engineering design itself. of our life and society. The "core element" project design articles in this section provide multiple examples of this phenomenon. In emerging technology design work, this kind of attention to life and society has become more apparent. For just one example, the integration of informatics and genetic engineering not only proposes the problem of human relations, but also brings out our understanding of human meaning. If the development of these emerging technologies mainly reveals the deep moral and social level of the project, what will happen next? No doubt, many things. We will focus on it how this development describes a more powerful engineering design into more acceptable descriptions of architectural design. If the gap between these two forms of design can be collapsed, we will move towards a better and comprehensive design concept. Interest people in the design of social technology systems as an example as an example to build the next discussion. Even even older forms of these systems, such as networks, consist of physical hardware and artificial means as part of the hardware work. Although recent developments, such as mobile phone networks, may not yet differentiate between the types of systems and these older systems, they must enhance the social dimensions of these systems to impressiveness.3 We believe that fully responsible design must require engineers to pay attention to human agents and their social institutions, including technical manuals, corporate regulations, national or international laws, and the hidden production of such systems a larger framework of social capital. Engineers of engineers to design these hardware and social institutional complexes leads us to architecture. Our argument is that increasingly complex engineering design narrows the distinction between blueprint and design in a building. At least since the late 19th century, architects who designed our architecture and living environment began to consciously influence human interaction and social organizations. Therefore, their works are directly related to the history of their company. In this case, this book tries to describe the philosophical and ethical work of current design by connecting documents on engineering and architectural design. It also provides practitioners with method 2, for example, refers to the recent a selection of technical philosophy, including Kaplan (2004), Katz, Light, and Thompson (2003), and Scharff and Dusek (2002). A detailed history of technical philosophy can be found in Mitcham (1994). For a recent analysis of technical philosophy, see Pitt (2000 ), Baird (2004), and Kroes and Meijers (2006).3 The biological characteristics of the mobile phone can greatly increase the social dimension of these systems, thus creating some differences with the old technology. See McGee (2003).

Engineering and architectural design

Philosophers have a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon of design. Although there are many forms of performance in engineering and buildings, each design can increasingly be seen as pointing to the same goal: the production of our material environment and our way of living in the environment. In the next two paragraphs, we will defend in more detail this position.

Engineering and architecture

We promise that we will provide a comprehensive understanding of philosophy and ethics of engineering and architectural design, which to some extent resolves a very different understanding of these two practices. Execution of this view and analysis of nature is complicated, because there are explanations of how these differences are made., Contemporary practitioners of these two disciplines speak different stories of alienation. But professional networking is not the only filter in history. In this part we will briefly present two competitive narratives, which are considered to distinguish these two disciplines with different attitudes towards the authors and organizational structure.We give it far from comprehensive, but we should better understand how engineers and architects are found in their company.

2.1

dominant story

It is generally believed that engineering and buildings have some conditions in common, but they are still inherent in nature. According to this vision, engineers enable staff to effectively and organize architects to provide a visual expression of the built environment. Usually, based on the third homework, material production and design designed by engineers and architects. Especially in large projects, third parties or "customers" are actually a concentrated collection, with different advantages, owners, users and means to standardize or secure the products created. Regardless of designing large or small cultural relic, engineers and architects usually make designs to meet the goals and requirements of third parties. Compared with visual artists, they usually work visual artists, architects and engineers are usually independent of the surrounding social and economic conditions. There are obvious differences due to the similarity of the discipline. Obvious differences include designed products, so it involves a type of manufacturing knowledge. Engineers typically design things like consumer goods, machinery, public facilities, and other useful products. Architects design the buildings of our lives and work and the public environments that these buildings create. Other a striking difference is that we will initially focus on how to understand the identity of the author of engineering and architecture. In the traditional perspective, architects are considered the author of what they designed. Similarly, as architects they must fulfill established goals and requirements

P. Cross and Sir.

Those who entrust them are enough to explain flexibility in design problems and can create a unique composition of space and materials. Customers usually expect such a broad explanation of collection problems. In some cases, teaching buildings and landscapes to reflect the architect's personal style and vision, just like earlier work. In this case, architecture is considered similar to art. The building owner may try to strengthen his social status by associating with the architect's artistic authority. Understanding the social background of building production is supported by traditional artistic philosophy. Among them, painting, sculpture or other products are determined by one author. For technical philosophers, the author of architectural products seems naive. Buyers, let alone many mappers, engineers, suppliers and contractors who have contributed to projects that realize knowledge and skills, and also contribute to the design process. However, regardless of whether they like a single or multiple author's lenses, the traditional field of view will arouse our vision as the author's architect. They only have a unique field of vision or control the imaginations of other actors' weapons. This view can also raise the question of whether the architect has more responsibility for the consequences of his design, but we will return to that later. Traditionally, engineers are seen to act in a less overt way. .The products they designed are characterized by their technical capabilities and may include decorations specific to their periods, but engineers are usually anonymous as authors. They can recommend to those who entrust them to adjust their expectations or introduce certain design methods into the project. However, their products are usually guided by simplification of design problems rather than comprehensive explanations. This means that specific goals and requirements agreed upon at the beginning of the design process limit engineers from considering effective problem solutions. Some pioneering engineers may be famous for their invention, and even the country even and some hero engineers are famous for their great public works. However, ordinary technological products will not be designed by an engineer. The full explanation of this traditional difference between the identity of engineering and architecture is complex, but we can say that engineers usually explain the problem with the help of quantitative standards, and architects usually they explain that the design problems are extensive and widely explained. Broad.Submit to a qualitative standard.A related phenomenon is that the culture of engineering and architecture produces different organizational structures that reflect different values.Architects usually work among companies that can be identified as construction companies.This is also applicable to some engineers, but engineering is also integrated into large commercial companies, including the identity of the engineer in the company. In this case, large companies assume the role of the author of product design, just like cars, mobile phones and sportswear and other consumer products. The relative anonymity of the engineer is related to the author's identity and organizational structure. If one

Engineering and architectural design

It is believed that engineering is an objective science that applies to a certain problem, so the identity of the author is hidden. The identity of personal designers is suppressed. In this case, the project is defined as the interest of goals and requests that the client agreed with the client.The scope of design problems to surpass secular architects, engineers tend to reduce the scope of design problems as a rope.The phenomenon is that traffic engineers are skillfully designed for cross -country abroad to meet the necessary requirements. Protok of traffic, but does not take into account the impact of pedestrian design, natural environment or urban development models, because these variables are not listed in the design of the design.Designers, faithfully and effectively perform the tasks assigned to them, not only transmit the identity to the author to the buyer, but also in the opinion of the engineers themselves, but also the moral responsibility and the use of 5 on the other hand.Ready to expand certain design issues to the involvement of these other variables, because their professional culture will reward them, if not buyers. Bothed a reason that the engineers seem to be more prepared to accept the commands rather than take the author's identity.Philosophers involved in research ethics have developed a specialized literature to prove that the engineer is "reporting". Some literature attempts to prove that professional practical engineers can replace their obligations to employers. Filozoph uses the American Challenge of Air Force Explosions and other examplesas related cases. This is said to have been ignored or neglected by NASA -Iin engineers or neglected the designs of "a circle in the form of -blined"."O -in the form of a circle" has sealed the connection between solid space aircraft missiles, causing a spacecraft to explode during launch. Some engineers should fill in more professional responsibilities from completing human security protection tasks.Our position is that such arguments are thought to need special reasons.Some reason is that the understanding of the engineer's responsibility is limited before the document is limited by a limited professional responsibility can come from a limited understanding of the identity of the entire engineering author. SUPPORTMENT, responsibility for finding political content and assessment of the construction space is relatively gentle.Architects in the early 20th century designed a house with a small kitchen for the example of a working class, Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky's Frankfurter Küche and Bruynzeel Piet Zwart

4 5

Guy and Shove (2000., 35). van der Poel (2001).

P. Kroes et al.

Kitchen - Separating cooking from life and redefining it as a rationalized and technological activity for the "modern housewife". Using similar logic, many historians believe that Baron George Eugene Hausmann's boulevards for Louis Napoleon's new Paris were designed to prevent these residents from easily closing off parts of their city during unrest. The same argument applies to the design of new colleges and American campuses after the student unrest of the 1960s. Philosophers, therefore, did not feel the need to make unique claims about how architects should exercise some form of professional, moral, or social responsibility, but simply pointed to the moral and social consequences of architects' products. In short, the story gives broad authorship and public accountability to architects and relative anonymity to engineers. It is our contention that this thinking is equally well reflected in the evolution of the various organizational structures they define. However, this version of the story is deceptively simple. There is another way of looking at the relationship between engineering and architecture that adds satisfying complexity.

2.2

The story of the counter

Architects take ownership of their projects and take responsibility for them, unlike them, engineers are more anonymous and can be proven historically. The problem is that history can prove the opposite. In the early "heroic" years of modern architecture (1920-30), for example, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (the first director of the Bauhaus) could enthusiastically claim that "architecture is the will of time understood spatially."6 Just a few years later, his successor, Hannes Meyer, asserted even more boldly that "architecture is intentional organization." 7 These statements are less ambiguous than might be invoked by other modern architects who collectively promote "architectural determinism," arguing that some kind of general well-being and social justice can be achieved through design. This determinism brings with it a strong sense of responsibility towards the architectural profession. If salvation is to be achieved through design, architects, individually and collectively, are our saviors. But after fifty years of modern disillusionment, especially in North America, it turned into political optimism. The Bauhaus was attacked and finally rejected by a new generation of postmodern architects whose interests were limited to the apolitical aspects of artistic practice. vision, leaving issues of social and environmental responsibility towards others. 8 To be clear, the architect's political intentions were never there

van der Rohe (1990). Meyer (1990). 8 long (1980). See Larsen (1993). 7

Engineering and architectural design

As many historians claim fully united, architects in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990 did not have limited visual attention. In the contrary, if you calmly test the construction of the early 21st century, you will find a diverse scene.Some of them are obviously practiced as visual artists (thus -a "old architect") and others use visual artists.Identity practice. Likely as the environment of Engineers (these are technical production companies, names such as SOM, RDGB and BNA), and some more actively participate in social activities than ever before (these companies are considered social environmental activists) .9 and deeperHistorical research reveals more information about the current situation. Not only that architects and engineers have practiced in an increasingly similar environment, but modern architects have long admired the quality of engineering practice. In the early 20th century, Switzerland-French architect Le Corbusier did not separate architecturefrom engineering practice.Instead, he believed that "the aesthetics and architecture of the engineers are two things that complement each other ..."They have previously denied the public design of the public. As the engineers advocated, accepting modern and industrialized production methods will not only improve the distribution of justice, but also produce aesthetic aesthetics that expresses this change of social values.The product of architects, they first condemned such a fact, or only 2% to 3% of houses (in North America) are designed by architects.Many types of practical buildings and the foundations of facilities, if roads, bridges and ports are designed by engineers. Propoming the architectural world revealing the statistics of the building industry shows that the architects are far from the author of the architectural world as we imagine. In short, this counter -arrangement shows that it is not right for the essentialization of engineeringor architecture. These two disciplines are now changing the attitude and practice of the author's identity and the organizational structure. It is an argument that in various practices and companies of representative engineering and architecture we can see that these two disciplines become similar and not different in our company.The actual work of contemporary engineers and architects, we will find that the identity and responsibility of the author are more divided into reality, even if it is not in the eye of the public. There is no need to discuss which of these two narratives is more precisely.Our purpose in this book is to present a number of attitudes to explain why the current development of engineering and architecture requires the development of social responsibility, moral practice and political background. The last decades of increasing architects, engineers and methodologists of designer became more and more recognizedto things

I saw NPR.Bell (2004).Le Corbusier (1990).

P. Kroes, itd.

Over time, especially in engineering, each design shapes social relations and therefore contains inherent moral and political content.What we now turn to is a deeper understanding of this common content.

Breach

Let us return to technical design and analyze its progressive development into a model that looks more like architectural design, as we identified in the first part of this introduction. During the 20th century, the institutionalization of various traditions and practices of technical design was established. During the second half of the last century, the practice of design gradually developed material products that focused on design and on seeing these products as wider social systems that fulfill their functions. For example, with the advent of ergonomics and the widespread distribution of computers, engineers systematically became involved in issues related to human-computer interaction and in designing human interfaces for their products. But the expansion of the boundaries of the systems that engineers must deal with did not stop at the records of human agents. The boundary between product and user also changes during the life cycle of the design object. The call for a more ecologically sustainable society forces architects and engineers to consider products as objects with a life cycle, including their production and disassembly. More recently, with the growing awareness of the vulnerability of large infrastructure systems to procedural disruptions and terrorist attacks, engineers have expanded their specialization to include the study and design of systems, the interactions of human agents, and mass-operating social organizations. technological product. This trend in various technical fields led to the emergence of systems engineering as a separate branch of engineering. 11 This new field was originally focused on the design of complex large-scale technical systems and the organization of technically complex production processes, including complex design processes. Today, the field is increasingly realizing that System Engineering will need to include human agents and social infrastructure as elements of system design. As we pointed out at the beginning, a design tradition has emerged that focuses on technological systems and the so-called socio-technical systems of science, technology and coexistence scientists (STS) and technological silicon: hybrids of technological objects. , proxy and social objects, all of which are required to ensure the functionality of these systems. For example, the critical role of social infrastructure in the functioning of sociotechnical systems can be illustrated by what happened to civil aviation in 2001, following the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York. Temporary partial breakdown of the civil air traffic system

On primjer, Blanchard and Fabrycky (1981) and Miser and Quad (1985).

Engineering and architectural design

Because part of the social infrastructure, airplane insurance, no longer works. The physical infrastructure of this sociotechnical system still exists, but not enough for it to function successfully. This engineering development is characterized by the fact that the boundaries of the design system are no longer drawn only around individual material products. Engineers must now broaden their scope by acknowledging wider boundaries, including human agents, their behavior, and ultimately their social institutions. Therefore, engineers, like architects, understand that they are responsible for designing the physical artifacts and the actions of the agents that interact with them. The concept of system boundaries can also be used to capture reverse development within an architecture. What architects call "building science" has changed the practice of architecture in dramatic ways. New digital manufacturing techniques and new materials enable architectural designs that you could only dream of a few years ago. In a sense, architecture narrowed its systemic boundaries through a new emphasis on building performance and natural science. This is a development that brings parts of the architectural world closer to engineering design. Here, as in traditional engineering design, design problems are generally solved reductively rather than extensionally. The engineer's shift from simplified to expanded design thinking has produced a design practice that more closely resembles the ethical and social consequences of architectural practice. Engineers who study sociotechnical systems, like architects of workhouses with kitchenettes, consciously shape the way people behave. This shaping of human behavior occurs not only in terms of human-computer interaction, but also, as mentioned above, in terms of social infrastructure. As creators of human behavior and interaction, engineers will need to consider the normative aspects of their choices for such structures. There they encountered the ethical and political dilemmas inherent in any assessment of human behavior. Furthermore, the physical hardware and the design of the social infrastructure of a sociotechnical system are not easily separated. The way physical products are technically designed imposes constraints on the behavior of individual users, and a social environment, such as building codes, regulations, and laws, needs to be established to ensure that the system functions properly. 12 Engineering thus becomes a deeply moral and political practice. Many design disciplines, with the exception of systems engineering, must now recognize that design always has such social consequences, whether we like to admit it or not, that affect the success or failure of projects. The call to achieve ecological sustainability is an illustrative example. Most analysts now recognize that environmental degradation is as much a social as a technological problem. Heating and cooling of urban buildings, and the consumption of fossil fuels, associated with the "urban heat island effect",

For the historical development of architectural specifications and its specific discussions in the social technology system, see Moore (2005).

P. Cross and Sir.

Only two considerations.In the United States almost every building has its own heating and air system. SUPPORTMENT, Many European cities have a regional heating and cooling system owned by parliament, which can significantly reduce emission and increase fuel savings.The technical standards themselves are already based on different traditions of different countries in the appropriate areas of property rights and public services. If the aim of the development of technology in this example is successfully resolved by environmental problems, designers must learn to think in new ways.The sustainability of the environment, just like in architectural practice, engineers should work hard to fully understand the design problems. However, because of this measure, engineers will have to deal with a greater atmosphere of social responsibility, and their designer solutions will develop and implement in it in it.They design solutions will be in discomfort with a wide social atmosphere, and engineers, like many architects today, become de facto social critics, represent a significant spread of their professional responsibility. Don't overdo our situation, we have to understand that the spread of responsibility will be a choice.Many engineers will completely neglect these old expectations about design agreements and practical limitations or consciously choose "all the same" and refuse to break through the social atmosphere of their traditional work. It is the point that part of this expansion from the outside will be imposed on the outside.What was the City of New Orleans destroyed after Hurricane Carterin in 2005, if you do not face greater social problems, how to redesign the social technology system (in this case) and the first political climate promoting urban growth and development? We can imagine that we can easily renovate the systemCharging and channels so that he fully returns to the state before the hurricane Carterin.to politicians and give them responsibilities of success or failure. It is clear that such a solution is also irresponsible and unreasonable, because politicians are not sufficiently dressed in related science.At this point, they can decide to provide a design solution to accept the goal of maintaining a particular city in New Orleans, or rejecting their inattentive or irresponsible approach. In any case, engineers will participate in the framework of the responsibility of future citizens of New Orleans, whether they like it or not.The similarity between engineering and architectural design can develop to some extent, so both can benefit from experience and methods that follow other disciplines. We have three opinions.

Engineering and architectural design

3.1

Design process

Our first observation concerns the scope of the process of architectural design and expansion of engineering.Even in small projects, different stakeholders are included, some of which will be part of the designed sociotechnical system.with these various stakeholders., architects will negotiate a design problem and give a project solution.Almost not a single stakeholder has complete control over every project, that is, there is a strict hierarchy between all the stakeholders involved, so that the entire design process is managed from one command and control center.In traditional technical design aimed at technical design of hardware, these negotiation processes play an important leading role.13 The assumption is that the material product in question is a purely technical nature, and the design is based on the idea that its behavior can be checked in all relevant aspects.This is no longer the case with the design of sociotechnical systems.If the engineers are aware of the social dimensions of their practice, they could also be able to better negotiate the parameters of individual design issues, as well as the parameters of ethical and social dimensions of these questions among stakeholders.As the New Orleans example suggests, the engineer's acceptance of this role will require him to release only one position from the adoption of the command of his employer.From a traditional perspective of technical ethics, this alternative adds to the problem of "more hands".If so many stakeholders are involved in defining and solving the problem of design, by assigning specific responsibilities to those involved, is it still possible for the engineer to make a mistake?Maybe not.However, because of the size and complexity of many design problems today, such problems cannot be avoided.

3.2

Design limit

Our second observation is associated with the first and includes design limitations.In principle, material systems can be designed according to the above lines from the perspective of the overall design control.For sociotechnical systems, this is problematic, if not impossible, because the behavior of actors within the system is often unpredictable.This is also a well -known aspect of architectural design.Agents that are part of the sociotechnical system can redesign the parts of the system in unpredictable ways from the inside.14 Therefore, it is impossible to have one view that can be used to design and control complex systems.Furthermore, if some agents in the system try to change parts of the system in predictable ways, the overall effect of all these changes at the system level may be unexpected and unpredictable.This part can be 13

For possible complaints, see Bucciarelli (1994).See, for example, Andrew Feenberg (1995) is now a well -known example of the "subversive rationalization" of the French Munitel user.See also Merk (1994).

P. Cross and Sir.

Due to the complexity of the social technology system, critics have even argued that this system exhibited emergent behavior. A specific example of this phenomenon is Wikiipedia. Wikipedia is an online users, free and "open source" encyclopedia. The tool was made by a minority included in 2001 by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation in 2001. These people are right for these people. Contents of the user encyclopedia is responsible. They argue that the interests of human knowledge are served by the responsibility of spreading people. This is the best service in the scope of diffusion. Current moral theory is based on traditional personal responsibilities, which may not be appropriate for this. Proper transactions of class issues. Striking new developments in technical and morality can provide some methods for these problems, which enables us to enter into our third observation.

3.3

Technical ethics

If successfully prosecuted, three new developments in the field of technology ethics could help bring the scope of responsibility for technical design closer to that of architecture. First, Deborah Johnson and Jameson Wetmore (2007) suggest that a fertile starting point for such an ethics of technology can be found in the combination of OPS with pragmatic ethics. They point out that until today the idea of ethics of technology was based on the separation of technology from its social context and the idea that technological practices are not subject to social, political and cultural values. According to them, engineering ethics mainly focuses on the business context of technology. They identify three key ideas in the OPS literature that could change the ethics of technology so that they can better address the kinds of questions we are asking: 1. The claim that technology and society help each other is a weak form of security in technology. 2. In ST on the "socio-technical" nature of all technologies, long recognized observations. 3. The argument that technical expertise does not only derive from junk knowledge, but is also shaped by social factors. Claims that incorporating these foundational ideas into the ethics of technology will allow the field to better critique claims that technological design is morally valuable. Another new approach to technical ethics is "value-sensitive design". 15 This approach corresponds to the idea that socio-technical systems are the main unifiers

Friedman (1997).

Engineering and architectural design

Ethical analysis of technology. Socio-technical systems are by definition value charging systems, and the design of such systems is by definition a value charging activity. Value-Sensitive Design will explore the implications of this realization for engineers. It is based on the idea that social and moral values can be proactively built into technological hardware, for example by designing communication devices in a way that preserves the value of privacy. These ideas may be familiar in architectural practice, but are relatively new in many technical areas. An ironic example is the design of household heating devices in Sweden, documented by social anthropologist Annette Henning. To meet the national target of using more renewable energy instead of imported oil for home heating, the Swedish government has worked with industrial engineers to design stoves and bio-pellet stoves. However, to the dismay of all parties, this campaign of technological change proved unsuccessful, as the devices did not correspond to cultural "notions of home and family, private and public spaces, and spaces for men and women". Commenting on Henning's findings, the editor of the book that published the study noted: "Knowing how to design a heating system that works mechanically is quite different from knowing how to design a system that users perceive as matching their domestic customs and values.' 16 A third new approach to engineering ethics can be drawn from recent developments in architectural practice itself. Earlier we briefly discussed the need for whistleblower accountability in engineering to expose design practices that in the name of efficiency may end up being harmful to citizens or the environment. In this context whistleblowers can be understood as members of the system, but also as citizens serving society. Part of the whistleblower's recognition is that citizenship requires a higher degree of loyalty than membership in a government agency or corporation. In the architectural world, some have compared Prince Charles to a kind of whistleblower, at least in the sense that his activism to preserve historic buildings and urban models corresponds to a greater sense of responsibility to the public. But as the Prince of Wales, Charles is also a citizen, not a participant. He is a privileged observer outside the system. The phenomenon of the "citizen architect" might be an even better example of engineering practices In Germany, Peter Hubner; in the United Kingdom, Rodney Hatch; and in the USA, the late Samuel Mockbee (of Rural Studio), Sergio Palleroni (of BaSiC Initiative) and Brian Bell (of Design Corps) did this in what they called "community design" Citizen Architect. These design practitioners claim that their authority to design public buildings derives not from their status as licensed professionals, but from the local communities they build. Rather than resenting the confusion of artistic autonomy associated with community design, these designers tend to see the expression of local values as a source of creativity rather than its suppression. According to them, design is an inclusive social process in which

See Henning (2005).

P. Kroes et al.

People decide they want a way of life - this is not an autonomous process defined by experts and given answers from above. These practitioners are not just populist commanders dedicated to undoing the technical system of bureaucracy. On the contrary, they are highly technical architects. They believe that great design depends on the creative synergy between the experts' abstract knowledge and the local knowledge of the user. At its best, the value of responsive design is not only the inclusion of local values in the designer's future vision, but the designer and the citizens rely on each other's knowledge to create a better transaction process in a better world. Overall, we believe that design practice usually improves because we can distinguish between effective and successful technical systems. If any system is to succeed, it must be supported by the citizens it serves and the citizen it serves in return - that is, it is constantly updated over time.

paper

The order of the articles in this volume has been chosen to reflect the integrated understanding of engineering and architecture that we describe here. The first volume contains nine articles on engineering design, in traditional "details". Written by philosophers of technology, these essays collectively provide an overview of current philosophical analysis of technology, with the aim of establishing that engineering is more than an activity concerned only with products of constituent materials. Written in different philosophical traditions and with different aims, all nine papers deal with engineering design and its products that involve ethical, political and social issues. The section begins with four articles by Maarten Franssen, Wybo Houkes, Don Ihde and Philip Brey. Together, these articles focus on the relationship between designed products and the intentions of their designers, their immediate users, and the consumer groups that shape their existence. These points of view are discussed, sometimes radically, about the impact of the original intentions of the designer on the identity of the product. But regardless of these differences and whether the focus is on individual products and design processes or on more collective historical developments in technology, a recurring theme is that understanding design and its products requires a broader focus than the product itself. These articles were followed by chapters by Anke Van Gorp and Ibo van de Poel, Peter-Paul Verbeek, Patrick Feng and Andrew Feenberg, Kiyotaka NAOE and Paul B. Thompson. All these works enrich the analysis of engineering design with a more explicit normative perspective. Again, the focus of these papers covers a wide range, from the ethical decisions made in the design process by individuals to the ways in which engineering can change society by changing the economic characteristics of various goods. These works constitute many, if not most, philosophies of technology The initial position makes clear that engineering, like architecture, shapes our lives and our societies—a conclusion that is inescapable when considering new forms of engineering.

Technology and architectural design

The second part of the notebook contains ten articles on new forms of engineering designs that are currently emerging.From the technical point of view, the division between these two parts can be clear;From the philosophical point of view, there is a more gradual difference, because when these new forms are considered for the presentation of moral, political and social requirements.However, current engineering news also introduces new problems, or new problems in clearer form.Bioengineering and genetic manipulation, for example, represent a whole new problem for humanity, opportunity to re-create, at the present real occasion.And infiltration of nanotechnology and nanotechnology that changes our thinking and assessing technology, for example designed with more classic forms of technology.Bio-geangering and genetic manipulation applied or intended for use on people, followed by three work of Daniele Cerqui and Kevin Warwick, Melo-Martín and C.T.A.Schmidta.These factors agree to the complete acceptance and acceptance of our transgender future (as specifically presented in Warwick's work) to expressing a series of serious objections to future human beings.Kristo Miette Krohs, Kathryn A. Neeley and Heinz C. Luegenbiehl and Noam Cook, lead us to the design of the social technology system.These articles advocate the systemic approach to the system design.Internal design practices cannot be considered only facilities, but also wide elements, systems containing not only technological elements, but also human and social elements.In this way, a technological design that takes into account the narrow relationship between technological artifacts, human agents and social environments.Slotte.Moving the focus in engineering design in the emergence of technological products applicable to socio-technical systems, the connection between engineering and architecture and the third part of the notebook, and six essays on architectural design.This is what different authors asked about the future.Architectural design, Urban Aesthetics and Social Engagement in the Context of Emerging Davisa, Stevena Athletes The building design process is separated from the process of its construction, Moore and Weber, exploring the history of Davis's evidence throughThe discovery of the linear perspective techniques .. For all three authors, architects and citizens from abstraction in material architectural conditions have negative consequences that can only be prevented in design practices.Cavanaghand Pitt, although speaking from another perspective, we can object to the ideas we can generalize.As for different environmental design disciplines or certain disciplines, common methods can be used successfully.In short, all these authors claim they have succeeded or

P. Cross and Sir.

Well, design in a particular society and ecological environment. The constant two articles of Graig Hanks and Glenn Parsons solve the aesthetics of architectural space as social participation and extension of the natural function. Unexposts, the concepts of combining the construction and engineering design of architectural space ina more unique way.17

Baird references, D., 2004, Knowledge: Philosophy of Scientific Instruments, University of California Press, California Berkeley.bell, B., ed., 2004, good works, good design: Community service through architecture, Princeton Architecture Press, NewYork.Blanchard, BS and Fabrycky, WJ, 1981, Systematic Engineering and Analysis, Press-Hall, English Kliffs, Nj.Bran, S., 1994, how to learn from buildings: What will happen after completion, Viking, New York.Bucciarelli, LL, 1994, Design Engineer, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Feenberg, A., 1995, Alternative Contemporary: Technical Management of Philosophy and Social Theory, University of California Press, Berkeley, California.Friedman, B., ed., 1997, Human values and design of computer technology, Cambridge University Press and CSLI, Stanford University, New York.Guy, S. and Shove, E., 2000, Energy Sociology, Architecture and Environment: Knowledge Construction, Designer Practice, Routledge,London.henning, A., 2005, equal couples in equal homes: a cultural perspective on the design of solar and biopelleta brown heating, in: S. Guy and with Moore, ed., Sustainable a Rchitekure: Nature and Culture in Europe and North America,Routlege / Spon Website, London, p.89-103.Johnson, D.G.and Wetmore, J. M., 2007, STS and Ethics: Impact on Engineering Ethics, on: New Science and Technology Manual, M. Lynch, O. Amsterdam and E. Hackett, MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology..Caplan, DM, ed., 2004, reading in technology philosophy, MD, Transheus Books, Amherst, Ny.kroes, P.A.and Meijers, A., 2006, Introduction: Double Properties of Technical Labor Posts, Stud.Phil.Phil.37 (1): 1-4, which introduces special questions about the philosophy of engineering and workpiece.lang, J., 1980, Architectural environment and social behavior: Reflect the theory of architectural decisions, via 4: 146-153.Lelansen, MS, 1993, behind postmodern facades: architectural chang in America with the end of the 20th century, University of California, Berkeley, California.le Corbusier, 1990, moving towards new buildings: leadership principles, on programs and declarations of 20th century architecture, U. Conrads edited, myth press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts, Massachusetts, Page 13.59.Mcgee, G., 2003, Beyond Genetics, Harper Collins, New York.meyer, H., 1990, architecture, in: Programs and Manifesto on 20th Century Architecture, U. Conrads, ed., Mit Pridge, Ma, pp..120.

We are very grateful to Mirandi Aldham-Breary and Merel Schrijver for their help in preparing this book.

Engineering and architectural design

Miser, H.J., en Quade, E.S., 1985., The Handbook of Systems Analysis: An Overview of Use, Procedures, Applications, and Practice, Wiley, Chichester. Mitcham, C., 1994., Thinking Through Technology: Paths Between Engineering and Philosophy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Moore, SA, 2005, Bouwvoorschriften, u The Encyclopedia of Science, Technology and Ethics, Carl Mitcham, ur., Macmillan, New York, str.262-266 Pitt, JC, 2000, Razmišljanje o tehnologiji: Temelji za filozofiju Tehnologija, 7 Bridge Press, New York. Scharff, R.C., en Dusek, V., ur., 2002., Filozofija tehnologije: Uvjeti tehnologije, Blackwell, Malden, MA. Simon, H., 1972., Znanosti umjetnog, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Van de Poel, I., 2001, Onderzoek naar ethische kwesties in technisch ontwerp, Sci. Engineering. etika. 7:429-446. Van der Rohe, L., 1990., Radne teze, u Programs and Manifestoes on 20th-century Architecture, U. Conrads, ur., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, str. 74.

first part

Technical design

Design, use, and physical and intentional aspects of manufactured artifacts by Maarten Franssen

Techno-artifacts are said to be a special category of objects that require a combination of physical and intentional "descriptions of the world". In this chapter, I question this position. Any object can play a role in a person's intentional action, for example for a goal. The more interesting question is whether there is a single and most appropriate way to intentionally describe the technological artifacts it serves, or in other words, if a technological artifact of a certain kind is fixed, to what degree is the object's nature fixed? . In this contribution, I object that such positions are fixed. The purpose of an artifact usually depends on its design and use. The consequence of this point of view is that the metaphysical status of a technological artifact, in the form of an exact answer to the question of what kind of artifact it is, whether it is an artifact of a species, is in some cases ambiguous Still not certain. where the use is not intended. But this is precisely the type of metaphysical ambiguity pervaded by intentional conceptualization, illustrated by the arguments in the work of Parfit and Davidson.

cultural relics and natural objects

A lily of the field may not work or purr, but many animals do, and of all animals members of the genus Homo are known for finding nature's equipment too meager for their taste. Thanks to the painstaking tool making of Homo Faber, the world now contains a large number of material objects, which are man-made objects or artifacts. This does not mean that everything made by man is a material object. Rules, instructions, and organizational charts are not, for humans or machines, a special and elusive category that deserves more of my philosophical attention in this essay. Therefore, I will ignore that category entirely and limit my discussion to material artifacts.

Delph University M. Franssen University

A. E. Verma et al., Editor (s), philosophy and design.© Springer 2008

M. Franon

Similarly, everything created by the creative interference of people in the environment are artificial products. This breakdown of failure (like waste gas or wooden chips) is not. It is impossible to distinguish material objects pseudo -emage by defending objects created by people.will also be unexpected objects, such as broken branches, stones or waste in our body between shadows. The artistic products are not only caused by human cause.The workpiece, if you need to consider the restriction of skills and knowledge, the object should not only appear, so the intention of action must be accurately to create this object. For most cultural relics, especially the work parts we call technical relics, it can be more strongly accommodated: theynot only intentionally arises, but also takes into account certain goals. However, it is unclear that it is a stronger proposal. In every deliberate action there is a goal.In the world, the actor tries to achieve an action. Part is that the goal of technical relics is to outweigh the goal of designer creative behavior.This goal is to adhere to artificial products after the manufacturer leaves the stage. This is really the way the conceptual technical relics in everyday life: our tool frame is full of objects that we think are screwdriver, Moore, etc. The "Gospel" of Technical Relics missedis a natural physical description. Technical relics are still physical objects, and they are influenced by natural laws such as any equipment in space. With it, unlike ordinary natural objects, they give them a "goal", but they are intentional "aspects", because the purpose is to entertain what people are interested in. To describe the pseudo -inaga "enough" or "complete", you need to consider or make a deliberate or playing role. It seems that it is very easy, but it's not so easy to play these twoMethods or what decisions or description of physical and intentional aspects play, "sufficient", or describe the form described by the described description of the work parts IT described.Essencija are questions that I want to answer in this chapter. In the report, in this chapter, when I tried to answer these questions, I will emphasize the role of cultural relics users and also emphasize the role of artificial products.Pieces can be considered a privilege position because he or the first person who designed. However, this is not my position in this chapter, at least not too much reservation.but the first one is included in the latter.In paragraph 3 I think the quality of technical relics depends on design and use. In paragraph 4, I obviously discussed

The design, use and physical and intent of engineering workplaces

A problematic consequence of this claim is that what kind of artifact that object is does not necessarily have definitive answers, and I think that this form of uncertainty is an inevitable feature of intentional conceptualization. In the final section, I use this feature of intentional conceptualization to make some arguments against the idea that prioritizing the services of artifacts is intended for designers.

physical and intentional description

The first of these questions is whether the concepts of "physical" and "intentional" are sufficiently clear in relation to the description of the object. The above award was won within the research program 'The Dual Nature of Technological Artifacts' developed by Tu Delft. In a recent review, the program's rationale was presented as a hodgepodge of "technological artifacts" that could be adequately described in one way or another only by a physical and intentional conceptualization of the world. 1 This way of saying things seems to be based on the idea that there are two alternative or complementary conceptualizations in the world, physical and intentional. The physical and intentional aspects have been greatly tightened. If the contrast between physical and intentional conceptions of the world is introduced, instead of physical and intentional aspects or intentional words or intentional words or expressions, physical conceptualizations must be seen in intentional conceptualizations, or in intentional conceptualizations or intentional description dependence in intentional description. In the intentional "conceptualization of the world," if we want to stay in touch with such terminology, a physical description of the world is assumed. The world is still full of physical objects, which are positions, velocities and weights in spacetime. But there is something else: mental states, including beliefs, desires, and actions. The part with beliefs and desires refers to these physical objects, and the part with action on the intentional manipulation of physical objects. (This may not be the preferred mode of idealist metaphysics, but since such metaphysics has lost most of its popularity these days, I'll ignore it.) This looks like an extension of conceptualizing the physics of the world from a microlevel description. macro-level description. For example, when describing water on a macro level, the vocabulary expands to include the concepts of boiling and freezing, but retains the concepts of mass, velocity, etc. Meaningless. macro level, although not all terms can preserve them

Kroes and Meiers (2006, 2).Historical development is of course in the opposite direction, from the description of the macrorazine to the microrazine.During this development, the used vocabulary was reduced to retain only "main" properties necessary for the complete description of the world.2

M. Franon

Utility on the macro level. If you insist on the return of the original theory, you can even describe macrones with micro vocabulary. In the principle, the event is allowed to use only a physical dictionary for the "micro" description. At first, there is no reason to think that there will be a conflict between the twoDescription, just as there is a conflict between the macro and the micro physical description of the same phenomenon. However, the availability of physics and intentional vocabulary has launched several philosophical problems.It is most correlated here that, above all, that the description in one vocabulary is related to the description in another vocabulary.These descriptions are clearly encountered.is, in the human body, more precisely in the brain, followed by the clear or accurate description. Filosophical questions about the nature of artificial products are related to these two questions. In this chapter, I will only discuss the second issue, that is, the safety or accuracy of the intentional description.Idiomas are part of our vocabulary because we are useful for it. This use refers to the fact that artificial products are not mysterious. which is not clear is to apply it in artificial products where the intentional vocabulary is applied to artificial products. How is the authenticity of artificial products explained inDictionary? The basic words in the word of intent are faith, desire, actions, goals, goals, purposes, expectations and desires. They are folk psychology, suitable for people or people.Any physical object can be an object of faith, desire or expectation. Is this considered an object described, perhaps partly, in a deliberate vocabulary? It seems to be free. People have beliefs and expectations for everything we know.After all, this is what we have, and many otherwise do not exist. Of course, this will not be a very interesting result. The other possibility is that the objects can be described intentionally, not by physical descriptions, just as people can describe as physics in parallel andThey can be described as specific purposes.This double description means, which means sampling a double sample description.Teum, the "double nature" claim of artificial products can be expressed as such a claim, that is, no matter in any physical description in the above sense or any intentional description, regardless ofHow wide, enough or fully describe those types of object object.

3 I ignore the situation of quantum mechanics here. It can be said that classic physics and quantum physics represented two concepts of competition in the world. It is considered important to be an important philosophical depth and cannot solve 75 years of debate.4 We must imagine "physics" here, including biochemical and physiologicalDescription of people as biological biology.

The design, use and physical and intent of engineering workplaces

The problem with Artifact Islands is that we can easily use intentional words to describe any object in space that we know of. "The facility I'm currently thinking about" would be a good candidate. This is a mirror image of earlier observations that everything we know can exist in the content of mental states. Furthermore, these descriptions say something real that is missing from physical descriptions of the same object or situation. Physical descriptions of Alpha Centauri will adequately describe the star in terms of predicting its position in the sky or its radiation spectrum, but will not capture the aspects of Alpha Centauri that I just thought of, or my side did not think of Alpha Centauri when I last searched. A mere physical description of an object does not contain our thoughts, because it seems to be the brute truth. At the same time, just deliberately describing it is very cheap. Like artifacts, our descriptions serve a purpose. Instead, what we are looking for is a description that somehow appeals to the applicability of the object in terms of artefacts.

Ontologically unique in use and design

A candidate for such a description is the following: "Object x can be used or is currently being used to achieve outcome y." In this form, it is not self-evident that this description uses an intentional vocabulary. The only meaningful word is "use". In order to emphasize intentionality more clearly, the description can be analyzed as consisting of two parts: one part stating that object x is part of an arrangement that will in some circumstances lead to the achievement of result y, and the second part stating that it was or is one or more intentional actions taken by individuals to organize and control arrangements and/or situations. One chooses this object over another, or not at all, because of the desire for a certain outcome and the expectation of achieving that outcome. For the sake of simplicity, I assume that the situation is or is intended to be, that is, the result obtained is or is expected and that it was obtained or obtained in the intended manner. In this account, the intended part of the description is not a necessary part of the description of the artifact and can be removed without problems. What remains will be a purely physical description of behavior or tendencies to behave through physical objects. Object importance will not be resolved. One problem with this description is that it is too loose. It doesn't particularly apply to artifacts. It can be applied to anything that falls within the realm of human behavior, or at least potentially human behavior. If an artifact is "for something" in this sense, then it is also any ordinary object, man-made, natural or human, that we use for some purpose. The stone is there to crack nuts; the pebble that Tom Thumb drops on the ground is to find his way home; the magician's assistant is there to distract the audience. 5 What is the purpose in these cases?

Jesse Hughes is responsible for the last example.

M. Franon

Not just one aspect of an object when needed - something that should include a full description - like a display of electrical exercises? This seems to be what the "dual nature" argument denies. He says that electrical exercises are for something that Palčić stones are not. Something essential is missing in the description that omits the display of the exercise and lists only the physical characteristics of the exercise. What defines technical artifacts, such as electronic exercises for a specific purpose or part of a solution that serves a purpose, is that they are designed to serve a purpose, along with other objects used. This additional aspect gives us another candidate for an intentional description of an artifact with the right approach: "Object X is designed and produced to achieve outcome y." This description simply makes X an intentional action for: one or more persons who designed or made it. One of the component parts chooses the composition of the entire object, as well as the material and shape of the component parts so that it behaves in a specific situation. It will show. Again, for the sake of simplicity, I assume that the designer intends to use a precise form, or more formally, a plan of use, 6 to the final - expected - result. Artifacts are designed and created to achieve results. Note that this description only applies to technical artifacts. There are many artifacts that were designed and/or created with a purpose, but did not include the purpose of being used for any purpose. Examples include artwork as well as test pieces. Therefore, the representation of general artifacts has a wider scope than the representation of technical artifacts. However, this candidate also faced the problem of being accurate for more objects than for the full power drill. First of all, technical artifacts wear out, wear out, decay, they can even become unrecognizable, although the continuity with the original artifact is so great that one must speak of the same object, but few will deny that it has a blown fuse. the auger is still used to drill holes, but for many artifacts that were once created for a purpose, it seems a stretch to claim that they were still "for that purpose" regardless of their condition. for a completely different purpose. Examples are tires made from garden swings or pipe cleaners used as craft toys. In short, a claim is a description in an intentional vocabulary that clearly demonstrates its purpose and captures essential aspects of a technical artifact that are simply missing from a physical description. Also, this necessity only exists in subclasses of anything that serves a purpose, because otherwise all that could be would be an engineering artifact, and the term is in danger of losing its meaning. We can use almost anything to achieve our goal. NASA used Jupiter to launch the Galileo spacecraft outside the solar system. The famous determination of the path of light in a gravitational field using both the Sun and the Moon at the 1919 site Tintin readers will know about solar eclipses

Houkes and Dr. (2002).

Design, use and physical and intentions of engineering jobs

It can also be used to escape from burning on the bonfire.The national team of technical artifacts is therefore important, not accidental, in order to be in cases where mere items are used for a purpose.This seems to be at least an acceptable theory of "semi-detached".Its essence is that technical artifacts are designed and products for the purpose for which they are used.Difficulties are the following: the fact that a certain natural object says that someone benefits for less is important for our conception of the object that some technology artifact is used for purposes, while this purpose is accidentally an artifact of the purpose that another agent has hadmind earlier when he made it.It seems to be here in the game of a marker type, but it is not explicitly listed in the "double natural" procedure.The fact that certain oysters are used for breaking nuts, there is nothing to do with pebbles as representatives of natural species, while in technological artifacts are almost always about representatives of historical species of nuts.7 Therefore, what the use property is not so important for stone, which is a quasi-representative of a friendly stone, while it could be easier to see him as a racket for the Nutilian Orasur artifact.Second, if the display of artifacts is analyzed only in terms of design for a particular purpose, it means that many artifacts, including artifact types, is intended for a particular purpose, although their use, or use, or their use, or their use, or use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or use,or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or their use, or, as a type or as a token, is focused on a whole other purpose.Figure 1 shows different collections of arbitrary objects that can be associated with the human goal X.However, it is not easy to overlook the fact that our use of facilities is completely independent of the previous history of these facilities.The fact of the fact

As shown in the picture. 1 Due to the possibility of defective objects, the set of natural objects of purpose x, objects of artificial objects, the relationship between objects of purpose x 7 'almost'. Will other representatives of the respective species also serve? I emphasize the importance of a clear distinction between functionally defined types of artifacts, such as "knife", and the importance of more tightly defined in terms of historical features, artifacts, or types of structure and design, the "Eight Inch Chef's Chef's Knife" by "Mesfirm Zwilling J.A. Hencckels" is an example. See my (2006) and (2008) works.

Mr Franson

The gender leaves, since the objects made by man are not guaranteed that he will always be authentic.In other words, double roles can be attributed to technological artifacts, but this duality refers to the existence of intentions in two different ways: they are achieved by goals (by someone) and are achieved by goals (one's goals).When the purpose of the object is completely described, two aspects must be taken into account.For "typical" artifacts, objects that are (successfully) used for design purposes, this is fine.Problems arise when the item is intended for purpose, but it is not used or not even for use, or when the subject is used for purpose or is suitable for use but is not designed for this purpose.There is an interesting relationship between this "double intentional nature" and difficulty finding comprehensive definitions of functional concepts for technological artefacts, biological organs and properties.The desire for such a definition is that it must be able to assign and brand new artifacts ("for" aspects) and flawed artefacts (made for "for" aspects).There is a connection, although not as love at first sight, between the aspect of "accustomed" and the so -called function of the system, and the aspect "accustomed to" and etiological functions or one's own on the other side.Function.However, I will not deal with it here.8 So far, I have deliberately avoided the word "function" to complicate key questions and philosophical mysteries in the chapter to provide an appropriate description of the term.9 Because of the design and production, "is or can be used for" "is or can be used for", as in the principle of independent aspects, claiming that both must be taken into account in the description of cultural relics what does it mean?Is there an appropriate description of an artifact that also takes into account the same time?One might wonder why a object was used for a certain purpose, which has a historical aspect in everything.Why don't we meet the claim that when a subject is used, the purpose for which it is used is also the goal, and any earlier use of irrelevant?Obviously, artifact history is very relevant to find out what they can be used for.The artifact designer has at least one way to which artifact can be used, and the history of objects as a designed artifact tells the user that he is useful.10 questions about artifacts why the original designer must be given the right to determine it.If one uses an object, whether an artifact or natural object, that person becomes a system designer who addresses that object.Of course he or she will distinguish

The source of the system function is Conominus (1975); the most extensive theory of causes of functional etiology is Mi Ligen (1984), who defines the inherent function of thought as a technical term.9 For an introductory function defining difficulty, see Preston (1998) and Vermaaes and Houkes (2003). 10 CF.Houkes (2006).

The design, use and physical and intent of engineering workplaces

Attributes in the facility - a matter of primitive designer will be, but it has nothing to do with the specified points, because it does not necessarily be such a thing, use these attributes to achieve specific results.

Metaphysics relics

If you take this view, what the object does seem to become a very easy task.I used the bottle that I temporarily used to support the stick I attached something from the container with a liquid to the stand to stand upright and back on the liquid container.It seems unacceptable if we consider artifacts with something certain, defining properties.However, we accept it for the natural objects used for purposes.The bones that have been given for free are now used to break the walnut, and in minutes will be divided again.Maybe I would like to knock down another nut immediately, but I can take any other stone available, completely ignoring the transient existence of the first stone as a nut.Also, I can choose another bottle for the next stick.In fact, it doesn't matter if the bottle is an artifact for an upright sticking of the stick and whether it was "used for something" in this regard.They are chosen because they have the right physical properties, just as the stones have the correct physical properties for breaking the walnut.It is the same if the bottles grow on trees: in fact, in some countries bottles, that is, things with the appropriate properties to keep the liquid and stand upright on the branches, grow on trees.How good is it for us to claim that bottles - our bottles, are made of glass or plastic - in themselves designed to hold fluids and that pumpkins are naturally natural objects that can be used by accident to hold fluids?This capricious metaphysics is only a matter of interpretation of "existence for something" artefact as something, in essence, the way some rocks or electrons are, and some artifacts are treated as screwdriver, drills, etc. In fact.But should we?Insisting that we need to contradict the nature of a deliberate idiom.The universal terms that appear in this idiom do not appear in the strict laws of exception, similar to the laws of nature, which determine whether or not to cut into the field of intenthic "on the joint".Natural expressions relate to all objects that divide certain properties that define them and appear in the laws that every representative of the species respond to.This does not apply to artifacts.Whatever we take as a defining characteristic of a particular type of artifact or function type will be that certain objects, even the objects made by man, correspond to the description that we do not consider to be such, and the objects we consider to be samples of this type of artifact are not a defined feature.New instance of specific types of artifacts sometimes require a reinterpretation of defined features.The status of a Phillips screwdriver as a screwdriver is undeniable, but Phillips screwdrivers do not open traditional screws, while traditional

Mr Franson

Drive screwdriver, hard, just some Phillips screws.This simple example shows that, in a sense, the conditions under which the artifact should show certain physical behavior part of its characteristics.Of course, when it comes to technologically advanced artifacts in modern cultures, the claim that some items we do not think about as copies of such artifacts are still corresponding to their definition descriptions is very theoretical.It is difficult to imagine an object that functions as a TV or satellite without being designed to be.However, this does not mean that the TV or satellite type can be displayed in the same way as a natural type.It will hardly any other object respond to physical enters designed for these TVs in the same way as current TVs, but due to related changes in future broadcasting methods, future TVs can behave very different.Therefore, the expansion of concepts in the intended vocabulary determined by the statute, not an act that is tied to a strict law.In this regard, compare the description of Dereka Perfit about what it means to be human.11 Here it is irrelevant as perfist interprets the notion of man exactly.It is relevant that in his interpretation, as inevitably in any interpretation, the boundaries of personality are not clear.Sometimes one's question is "Will I still be?"Or "Does that mean my death?"I'm not sure.Perfit examples can be artificial, creating perfect replicas while destroying the original or split the brain and then transplant each half into another body.But to take a more realistic event: a traffic accident, Jeffrey suffered serious brain damage, and when recovered, he discovered that he lost all the previous memories.He had to start living aware again.Should we say that one person - Jeffrey - was killed in that busy accident?Perfit calls such problems a zero problem.In the same way, the question "what is this subject for?"Sometimes it can be an empty question, even for an object that is exclusively historical (technical) artifact.Screwdriver handle with a loose shaft, one gear from the old alarmie, it serves, although no one denies that they were made and used for a particular purpose.Whatever you answer the question, the answer does not add anything worthwhile knowledge about the case.12 Therefore, in a metaphysical sense, it should not be too seriously taken by the functional terms used to indicate technical artifacts.Tiding something by the screwdriver should be understood as a shortened "thing made for screwing the screws" or (less often I use to twist the screws ", not as" a thing that is a screwdriver.In this regard, technological artifacts are very similar to people, ie people in the imaginary worlds in which no moral law prohibits us to rinse their brains, shape and transform.

Pofitet (1984, part three). Note that this problem posed by archaeologists for excavated objects is by no means a meaningless problem, because in this case, the purpose of this problem is to increase our incomplete understanding of the practice of a culture that disappears and the incomplete essence of life

The design, use and physical and intent of engineering workplaces

We think it's appropriate. The pseudo statue appears as dishes. At some point their working life is over, even though there is still a physical object after that. Their "memory" can be erased and can be transferred to completely different targets. Occasionally they play a role, and the danger fits this role too well. Just like we usually say that it's usually not in trouble when it's Geoffrey), when we say that the pseudo -image is a screwdriver, we usually don't get in trouble. Therefore, the same type of material is metal. However, for the abnormal situation of people and cultural relics, we will no longer be sure and we can try a little.

Unprivileged roles of designers

After all, what does the uncertainty of the "existence" of technological artifacts, as I describe them, say about the role of the designer of such artifacts? I distinguish two aspects of this role. The "Double Nature" project entrusts designers with the (heroic) task of "bridging the gap" between physical and intentional descriptions by merging the function and structure of artifacts. Does this statement fit the relationship I have described between physical and intentional idioms? Second, the designer can be assumed to determine the ontological state of the artifact by creating the artifact. If a designer designed an electric drill, how could a product of this design not be an electric drill? Regarding the first question, I have already emphasized that there is no gap between physical and intentional vocabulary. Beneath my intentional state are all my beliefs about the physical world. I believe, for example, that a stone under my feet, if I grasp it with my hands, will stick, that I can lift it from the ground with the strength of my arms and throw it forward with a silent force. When I release my hand, I use more force with my hand, and then it hits the skull of the attacker in front of me, instead of going straight through the skull, etc., all of which adds to the movement of my raising stone to defend. Designers also combined a number of these beliefs when deciding how to build a particular artifact. These beliefs are no different from anyone's everyday beliefs about the world around them, nor are they any other kind of final decision. We might object that the designer and I in trouble are doing something that should be described by the intentional idiom, but that does not in itself (partially) involve its application. However, this objection is not valid. With the possible exception of low-level components, in contributing to the design concept, the designer will have beliefs about how future users will handle and manipulate the future artifact. Likewise, I might choose to pick up a rock and, instead of immediately throwing it at my attacker, scare him and make him feel better about the rock, what I can do with it, and what it will do to him. Similar beliefs, which I myself enjoy.

M. Franon

Physical idiom is not part of this, but part of the intentional idiom, partly explained the content of our beliefs, and partly explained the content of our beliefs, so that two vocabulary can be completely mixed ("I know that it believes that the hard statement" tomatoes are toxic ";The cigarette case will make her believe that he came here, "and so on). In all our behaviors, body contribution and (pure) deliberate idioms, permanently transmitting weight, reflecting such a fact, not just two artificial products -is oneThe other is one one, the other is one and one and the other is the one. Many of them contain two elements of vocabulary. I am over a long metal blade, sharp as a knife, inserted on a polished ivory; this is a tool that can cut most of the majorityorganic materials when pressed on the material; this is a knife knife ;; this is a knife that my grandfather bought in Spain; this is the only thing that will never be sold when I live; it is a thing that can reduce people without the need for people cut;will identify it by others.It is suitable for driving the conqueror;I'm afraid, because someone was really killed for that;This is a musical instrument that must be carefully treated, because it is easy to prosper through it;Wetting is obviously thinner than the original;This will worsen when placing the dishwasher;and so on. One of the facilities is technically artificial products.In a sense, they are designed for some purpose, or for some purpose, then at least one in these descriptions expresses this point. If the design is successful, that is, if a generated work piece can be used for its design purposes, there is a matching description thatIt expresses this, and there is a description of the attribute of the match match, which can be used according to it. However, this description, or at least very similar, can be applied to an object that is not designed for this purpose or no design at all.It will be used for this purpose, it will be described again. The descriptions of combinations on any law of these rules can be applied to a particular object, but these combinations have not exhausted all the actual descriptions of the discussion facilities so far, and there is no collection of all descriptions.Combines physics and deliberately intentionally intentionally intentional.Idiom.s the other hand, it should be emphasized that these descriptions do not imply the only and detailed description of the "pure physics" object. Even if the Declaration object can be used for a target description of Y, it is assumed that the goal is described as a non-gusto implementation as a physical stateY.The entry of facilities refers to typical conditions obtained in the environment of people's activities and some capabilities of typical human users.These are not objects in the physical description itself. When the use of an object can be determined in the form of a particular operational sequence, it is described in pure physical expression, and this "useful" statement may be derived from the physical description of the object.associated with the variety of effective description of human behavior. This is

The design, use and physical and intent of engineering workplaces

The contraction of the horn muscles of the chest, throat, tongue and face emphasized by the philosopher Donald Davidson. This is a dynamic extension of the static description. As for material objects, this means that they can use a different description, not in the language of cause and effect and natural laws, but in intentional idioms. In this idiom, they are described as intentional actions, as intentional actions and certain beliefs about the possibility of satisfying those desires. The swirling of the lips is a friendly pillow, the complex swirling movements of the arms and hands that quickly stick to different objects makes a cake, looks intently at a tiny black spot on the surface, reads a book. Crucially in Davidson's account, not only is the intentional account appropriate for a sporting event. It is also preparation for exams in the next few weeks. By all descriptions applied herein, no intentional action is required. Almost never actually. Let him get sick for a while, or she doesn't know that the poison is mixed with one of the ingredients, or there is no poison, but she knows that her husband is extremely allergic to one of the most common ingredients. Similar to what was said above in the case of artifacts and objects used for purposes, the description of the action is overwhelmed by the physical description of the underlying event, where many different events can achieve the same action. Inserted on a block of wood with a sharp object attached to the end of a stick can be the act of cutting wood for a fireplace, the act of venting anger, or posing for a photo used in an advertisement. Tide can be expressed by hitting someone with an ax or banging a plate against a wall or attacking the object of one's anger. Descriptions of actions and physical descriptions of events naturally constrain each other, just as the physical properties of objects and uses can constrain each other. Keeping one's eyes fixed on a sheaf of white sheets marked with black ink can aim for an hour, pass a book, or prepare for an exam; it cannot be the act of eating a sandwich. 14 Davidson's account of action can help us understand why the designer cannot be considered the "owner" of the artifacts he designs, in the sense of someone who can determine what the artifact is. Artifact design is a

Davidson (1980), especially Papers 8-10. Of course, the analysis of these constraints is an important research topic in the philosophy of action, as well as in engineering philosophy and methodology. However, that is not the topic of this article, which focuses on conceptual and metaphysical issues, and I cannot do so in the limited space I have.

M. Franon

deliberate action.The purely physical description of the event cites finger movements, hands, feet, and especially electrical emptying of brain cells, and the appearance of light patterns on computer screens, zero-naponic and one-legged patterns in computers, and on paper, ink stains.This is the least interesting of all descriptions.The second description, and probably the designer's favorite, is designing a new game console: but if that playing console surprised many young people, then designing such a device was also what she did, at the time.If the console, after being banned by the majority of the government, was widely used as a torture device in the dark police stations of Central Asia countries, designing a torture device was also something designers did at the same time.Of course, the designer did not design an instrument of torture, but she did so, because according to a particular description, her action was intentional.There is no general standard according to which one of these descriptions is more accurate or "more true" than the other.Which to choose to identify the designed artefact is a matter of convenience or convention.This extends in the way that the defective artifacts are described.Some authors claim that an object that does not have the physical ability to express the behavior required for a particular purpose is not, in fact, an instance of a functional type it is associated with.Goal.15 Suppose the other designer operates on a new TV, and due to incorrect specifications, one part in all products produced explodes as soon as it is involved in the socket.According to System Capabilities, these facilities would not be TVs.However, it seems to a contrantouitive to conclude that designing the TV is not what this designer did.Trying to repair the designer to "believe that she designs a TV" or "imagines that he designs a TV" seems fictional.Likewise, convenience and convention play a role in illustrating how much physical attributes of the object and design history can be different from operating equipment to justify its classification as a certain functional species.Do not misunderstand me that the restriction of the role of design engineer is to determine what artifact does, in my opinion, associated with the activity of the engineering design.What designers and engineers do is technically very different from what normal people do, even if they get loop.The amount of knowledge, sources of this knowledge, testing, redesign and retestation do not exist in everyday life.Metaphysically speaking, however, engineering artifacts and their design do not represent challenges we have not had from the Stone Age, or at least philosophical minds among us.

For example, Wouters (2005) and Davies (2001) on biological function.For example, Thomasson (2003) talks about technological functions.

Design, use and physical and intentions of engineering jobs

Reference Cummins, R., 1975, Functional Analysis, J. Phil.72: 741-764.Davidson, D., 1980, "Collection of paper action and events", Oxford University Press, Oxford.Davies, PS, 2001, "NaturalSpecifications ", Mit Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts.Franssen, M., 2006, Standardized workpiece, stud.Povijest.phil.Chill.Chill.Biology and technology, in: functions and more: Comparative philosophy of technical art products and the organism of biomedia, series of theoretical biology, U. Krohs and PAKroes Massachusetts Institute Technology Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, will be started. Houkes, W., 2006, knowledge of the function of artifact, stud.1.37: 102-113.Houkes, W., Vermaas, P.E.,DORST, C. I de Vries, M. J., 2002, design and by use: Theory Explanation, DES.Trkačka trail.23: 303-320.Kroes, P. and Meijers, A., 2006, Double nature of engineering works,Stud.Phil.Phil.Chelnost.37: 1-4 (special edition) .millikan, RG, 1984, language, thought and other biological categories, mit Priss, Cambridge, MA.Perfit, D., 1984, Rasus and Persons, Oxford Press, Oxford.Preston, B., 1998, Why Wings Like Bucket? Diverse Theory Function.J.Phil.95: 215-254.Thomasson, AL, 2003, realism and human species, Phil.Filipini.rezervoar.67: 580-609.vermaas, P.E.and Houkes, W.N., 2003, the function attributed to technical working parts: the cause of the challenging function.Britanski.j.Phil.Scnost.54: 261-289.Wouters, A., 2005, Functional debate from philosophy, Bill.Biologner theorist.53: 123-151.

Design is construction using Wybo Houkes plan

Summary in this chapter I advocate consciously reaffactoring of artifact design entitled "Use of Plan Analysis".The design key includes the creation and communication of plans for use.After presenting the draft of the use plan of use, I show that it can be used to fit into four dimensions of phenomenology of the use of artifacts and design: creative use, accidental discovery, an unreaded manual and an unknown designer;Using artifacts and design assessment.From this I conclude that the analysis of the use of use provides phenomenologically convincing, evaluatively useful, deliberate display of use and design.

present

The design is key to every human society - from early users of tools to modern society depends on technology.Design products vary from skyscrapers to microchipes, from time satellites to knit baskets.However, especially in analytical philosophy, design is as rare as a Siberian tiger - and is rarely actively looking for it.In this post, I have no intention of correcting this by providing complete analysis, let alone a clear definition of design.Instead, I suggest a framework for understanding at least one main type of design, designs of everyday items such as cars and toothbrushes.This use of plans for use begins with a seemingly trivial conclusion that design activity, such as scientific research or swimming.Therefore, resources from the branch of analytical philosophy - philosophy of action can be applied to the design.Discipline primarily deals with an understanding of intentional behavior, that is, behavior that expresses the purpose and intentional action.

W. Houkes, Eindhoven University of Technology

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

W Cook

In paragraph 2, I present an analysis of design and more turmoil as intentional actions involving the planned use of material objects. My goal is clarity and brevity, not completeness. Many details on user plan analysis and its applications, developed in close collaboration with Pieter Vermaas, can be found here and elsewhere (Houkes et al., 2002; Houkes and Vermaas, 2004; Vermaas and Houkes, 2006; Houkes and Houkes and Vermaas Vermaas Vermaas Vermaas Vermaas ,, Vermaas,,,, Vermaas,, and Vermaas,, and Vermaas,, and Vermaas,, and Vermaas,, and Vermaas" 2006). After the presentation, an ad-hoc evaluation of the user plan analysis, again focused on clarity , rather than completeness. In Section 3, I show how the analysis of user plans provides a phenomenologically feasible framework by adapting four aspects of design and the use of artifacts. These aspects are called criticisms because they appear to be reasons for user objections. -plan analysis and the acceptance of alternative statements. I then demonstrate the phenomenological prowess of user plan analysis by responding to all four points of criticism. Some of these responses also demonstrate the most important strength of user plan analysis, which can be used to evaluate usability and design. In paragraph 4, I briefly describe these evaluation characteristics and conclude that user plan analysis of plans provides phenomenologically feasible, intentional designs usable for evaluation.

Analysis of a design plan

The analysis of the user plan for the design is the story of an action theory that Pieter Vermaas and I developed and presented it in various publications (Houkes et al., 2002; Houkes and Vermaas, 2004; Vermaas and Houkes, 2006; Houkes and Houkes and Vermaas, 2006)..1 In the center of this analysis is the notion of the user plan: the sequence of actions, including the deliberate manipulation of an artifact, which the agent perceives as an achievement of a particular goal.Consider the object or artifact to create a prototype: a car.Driving is an activity that is often targeted and always includes multiple contributions.These actions can be trivial, such as the driver's seat or relatively complex clutches.However, car drive includes some of these actions.In addition, this series of promotions are usually structured as an order.Some actions, such as connecting the safety belt and checking the fuel level, can be performed by random order;However, others, such as opening the couplings and switching, must be performed strictly.Actions while driving can be conditioned and certain other actions: it is necessary to open the car connection to turn on the radio, which in turn opens the possibility of selecting another radio station.The fact that driving action is a task (partial or complete) as well as the task of conditioned resource means that the ride can be understood

1 Analysis and design planning methods (Hubka and Eder, 1998) have at least one characteristic of similar features and similar features (such as Roozenburg and Eekels, 1995). Due to space limitations, there is no discussion or discussion of the same important differences here.

Design is planned to use

Duration of the plan – a structured, extended sequence of (intentional) actions over time. 2 Many projects (but not all) involve the intentional manipulation of material objects other than our own bodies. Such a plan can be called a plan for the use of these facilities. For example, a typical sequence of actions from opening a car door to releasing the parking brake could be called a car usage plan, or a door and parking brake, or an engine and spark plug usage plan. A walk in the park, on the other hand, may involve a plan, such as meeting people, but analyzing this activity as a plan to use grass would make the idea of a plan of use almost all-encompassing and therefore uninteresting. Here we are not interested in whether usage plans can differ in any way from general plans. Even more interesting is the use of planned structure resources: Why do some actions have to be performed in a strict order while driving, while other actions are in an arbitrary order? It is difficult to identify this as a real problem, especially since the answer is so obvious: if some actions are performed in a different order, there is little hope of achieving the driving goal, while other actions are in a different order. It has nothing to do with achieving this goal. Thus, the structure of the artefact use plan ultimately depends on the purpose for which the use of the artefact should serve. If you want to drive your car, it's important to release the parking brake at some point, but not too soon; if you just want to listen to the car radio in the garage, releasing the handbrake is redundant at best. Borrowing a term from the philosophy of the theory of action, it can be said that the structure of the plan of use depends on practical rationality, 3 but including the values of effectiveness and efficiency. Some, but certainly not all planning structures derive from this value. Opening the door for the passenger before opening the door for the driver may be necessary for being a polite driver, but it is hardly necessary for being an efficient driver. Likewise, wearing a seat belt before driving may be necessary for safe driving, but it does not improve driving efficiency. As a preliminary assessment, values such as safety and friendliness are not included in the analysis of the usage plan. The structure of the utilization plan is sufficient to justify the immediate adoption of this approach based solely on effectiveness and efficiency. From the above, it is clear that the use of an artifact can be characterized as the execution of a plan to use that artifact. So when you perform the typical plan of opening the door, starting the engine, releasing the parking brake, etc., you are using a car; but frying an egg on the hood of your car in the middle of Death Valley also counts as using the car, despite the atypical usage plan. Characterizing the design in terms of the plan of use is a bit more complicated. According to the analysis of the use plan, design primarily and necessarily involves the creation of a use plan and the communication of that plan with other agents. 4 so the design is 2

For a general action theory of planning analysis, see Bratman (1987) and Pollock (1995)."Practical Reason" is just one of the many semi -tech terms that the philosophers have introduced to analyze the resonation related to procedures, not beliefs."Rationality" and "rationality of the means" are other concepts.For the purposes of this chapter, different terms are interchangeable: their differences, if any, are negligible.4 The designer tells him the use of plane memory only by handing over the plan.This "personal" design is a marginal case of using the plan analysis.3

W Cook

Sources of service plans available to community agents: Designers design use plans and usually communicate with other agents to help these agents achieve their (other agents) goals.The scheme begins with the aim of;The user-user plan then consists of a decorated series of actions that can be achieved and communicating.Describe items and how they are made.The last activity can be called product design, which is nested within a broader activity called plan design (HOUKES ET AL., 2002).This analysis emphasizes "tools" or "targeted" aspects of "productive" or "object-oriented" aspects of design.The product design is secondary because the product is selected or described for what it works in it.The implementation of the plan, and is not mandatory, as the agent builds all the user's plan, including the (plan) design where there are only artifacts and / or natural objects.Therefore, markings for the activities of "designs" usually assume the existence of the user and usually assume a plan and set of potential users.The emphasis on planning is to produce interaction between designers and users.The purpose of the design is to help the user achieve the goal;In this regard, the designer constructs the user plan that the user can perform and, possibly, to manipulate objects that have not existed before.Not only should the designers give those facilities to achieve their goals to help users - but they often do not.Ads can show that the artifact should be used.This is easy to explain to the analysis of user plans.Therefore, the designer must communicate actions and goals that make up the plan, unless the use plan is known to potential users..Without implicit or explicit planning plan, the design is not useful to others, if (indeed) is irrational.This short examination is closed, and its two comments relate to it.Explicitly refers to the psychological state, beliefs, desires and / or intentions of designers and users;In the implementation of the User Plan, the user is more or less "according to the" intention of designers ". The problem, plans that have a wide basis of beliefs and the need to implement these plans and designs for disputes that report to anti-detainees,not the actual human position. Intentional analysis or artifacts. In Eg. Neanughlin (2001); VermaAs and Houkes (2006) identified the features and identified problems with such analyzes and developed the analysis of the features that deal with these problems.

Design is planned to use

Second, user plan analysis is primarily a reconstruction, a retrospective review of the beliefs, decisions, and actions of rational designers that meet the practical criteria of rationality. In this way, the analysis of user plans ignores the analysis of user plans and ignores the actual design: it does not take into account, among other things, the interaction between the designer and the manufacturer, but only affects the inclusion of safety instructions and standards in the design role and, not much to say about the team design in terms of design. However, this does not want what-if analyzes to be completely insensitive to usage and design phenomena, as I will show in the next section.

Consider practical use and design

In this section, I am discussing four complaints to use the plan analysis.All of these complaints are motivated by phenomenology of the use and design of artifacts, as well as the existing unnatural representations of these activities, philosophical or others.However, for the sake of clarity, I portrayed and zoom in the diagram of the key forerunners of the phenomena talking about, so that the complaints are only similar to those presented in the literature;In order to avoid potential Laken misconceptions, I mostly omitted references.In any case, the purpose of this section is not to discuss existing or possible unnatural explanations, but to show that the analysis by plans can provide a phenomenologically feasible frame for understanding the design.

3.1

creative use

One can complain to any view of the use of an artifact that is focused on the intention of the designer, ie that actual use is not necessarily or even primarily associated with the efforts of designers (eg Preston, 2003).In many cases, users invent new ways to use existing artifacts, modify them accordingly and communicate their alleged success to others.Examples vary from rustic to exciting: the use of snail prevention of snails to eat garden vegetables have been discovered and transmitted by gardeners of all kinds, and is currently promoted by organic gardeners, not brewing companies;And it is unlikely that every aircraft manufacturer was imagined, not to mention the promotion of the idea that some of his products could be used as flying bombs in terrorist attacks on September 11th.In all these cases, part of the use plan analysis is applied: agents are also constructing a plan of use of communication, then they can be executed or rejected by another, for example, based on their effectiveness.However, plans builders are not designers, but users.Thus, the point of complaint is to use the analysis of use, as the planned construction retains exclusively for the designer, which is clear.

W HULS

In other words, objections can be immediately turned into answers. Inventive use does not mean that the designer's intention was unrelated to actual use. Rather, it shows that agents who typically use artifacts occasionally or even frequently may be designers, that is, constructors and communicators of usage plans. Using plan analysis involves roles and does not specify which agents can play those roles. Just as an agent engaged in designing, say civil engineers, is often engaged in the use of the product, for example while driving to work or brushing his teeth, so an agent who is otherwise employed in use may design the foundation occasionally or regularly. conditions for this to work. However, this does not mean that there is no difference between surrogates who design occasionally and those who do it daily. While relevant experience and expertise can improve the quality of design and use plans, it is a basic social fact that some agents specialize in design while others do not. Modern society is characterized by a large division of labor and specialization; such a division between professional designers and, for lack of a better term, "consumers". This social mechanism does not make consumer design impossible; does not exclude "consumer designers" from creating fair use plans. However, the distinction between professional and non-professional designers appears in several normative concepts, such as "inappropriate" use, socially and legally——if not rationally—to serve some use plans over others. These concepts, and the tension between rational reconstruction and social mechanisms, form the backbone of use analysis as an evaluative framework for the use of artefacts and design. In section 4, I outline the essential elements of this evaluation framework and provide some further implications of my proposed one. 6

3.2

coincidence

Another remark could be made about the description of the design process in section 2. Actual design is not a linear process. The designer does not assume the purpose of use, which is then translated into specifications, which are then sequentially realized by creating plans of use or material objects with certain physical properties. In fact, the designer switches back and forth between dishes, plans

Many countertheoretical accounts of the use and design of artefacts, particularly constructivist accounts in scientific and technological research, fail to value concepts such as "expertise" and "correctness", or fail to relate such concepts to things like the practical values associated with methodological rationality. More recently, prominent researchers have identified similar shortcomings in this tradition, notably Collins and Evans (2003).

Design is planned to use

Product design and design, they try to constantly solve problems, test solutions during different stages of development, etc.7, I consider only one way that the user plan analysis may not fit the design practice;The response to this criticism is also applicable to many other -based failures. In some cases, the final design product does not meet the original goals, but it can still succeed. The knowledge of this "exit product" is a kind of glue developed by Spencer Silver.It turns out that it is not a strong adhesive but a very poor glue. More often, another designer found that this failed product for another app, which can move notes on an independent extent and so effective that it became one of the most successful office products.During the design, they destroy the deliberate basis of the user plan analysis. In the end, the intention of the original designer is just a thin connection: the product is not designer expectations for it. However, these unexpected products exist, they have successfully sold and used and can be common as "predictive" products.In response, it should be emphasized that random sex will only destroy some naive deliberate stories, that is, a story that emphasizes the original intent of the designer. The still deliberate design of the representative design is not limited: as long as there is a clear basis for selecting some designers or other participants as a focus of analysis, you can changeits intention.Forms to determine the intention of analysis of the user plan provides communication requirements: it can be formulated or simply maintained different plans in the actual design process, but only helps the source of available users available.(Vermaas, 2006). For self -heating notes, he conveyed that silver materials would be the adhesive plan, which represents the basis of material evaluation as mistakes. After that, another user plan was formulated, and existing materials played a different role.It is transmitted with the user of the final product to move notes for independently. Construction of the "adhesive" plan and the construction of the materials and construction of the plan "Only -adhesive movement" are designed in the plan analysis;These plans are easily distinguished and can explain changes in the product in the product of the assessment. The fact that part of the previously failed adhesive type has nothing to do with the fact that the type of sticky notes that have failed.

7 There are a large number of literature on design methods that attempts to express the flow diagrams. Taxphenomenology design shows that due to reconstruction described in the text such a map of poor manifestation;For example, see different types of examples of engineering design in Schön (1987) and Bucciarelli (1994).

3.3

W Cook

Rejected manual

After incidental answers, it can focus on the communication aspect of the user planned analysis.In this analysis, the intention of the designer - constituted as a plan of use - intends to give the Community Communication Behavior of the Community of Content Community to contact.Perhaps this view could be adequately detailed, for example, using Grace Communication Theory.However, such complaints would spend the effort in vain.Even if the designer tries to clarify his intention or plan to clearly communicate, no user is still interested in whether this communication can be analyzed in an advanced way.Users' behavior research consistently shows that users do not read manuals or express great concerns for another type of extensive verbal communication.But such a program is so extensively structured in its way of working to seem that extensive verbal communication is the only means of communication.Therefore, it is inappropriate whatever is selected to analyze the designer communication actions.This is a positive report on the use and design of artifacts.Users do not have to pay attention to the communication efforts of the designers, since they already know how to use the vast majority of the artifacts they encounter.Users also often seek additional manual information.Although all these artifacts function within the existing, established practices.Designers seem to have a little freedom to deviate from these practices: not only is the design limited by physics capabilities (IM), norms and regulations, but also limited to traditional use patterns.For many artifacts, especially simple artifacts such as teasers and toothbrushes, it seems that the designer has no choice but to adopt a well -known user plan in which to implement it.Combined, unprotected manuals and unclear practices suggest that planning to use communication such as trying to send a whale: the only way to pretend to be successful is to prevent the hair washing and going where the place goes anyway.It seems that the analysis of user plans to designers attributes unrealistic freedom and authority.The answer is two.First of all, it can be emphasized that designers are more effective and creative in communicating their plans for users than the above.The manuals are far from the only available communication funding, and designers actively find more effective resources to facilitate or discourage.Ads and advertisements are often focused on new features and artifacts and show users as they use them - a smart way to change or add a traditional use plan.Many products direct users' behavior through the physical function of design without users even aware of it.8 Of course, the user can ignore and continue this communication

Well -known examples are lying players and heavy hotel keys described Latour (1991).

Design is planned to use

Use or refuse to use new artifacts in established ways. However, these failures do not affect the many successful communications of the new usage plan: most people actually use their car or toaster exactly as described in the manual. This leaves the checkpoint untouched. Maybe the designer just follows user management and does traditional user planning (redundancy). The source of the use plans that designers communicate and their success in changing user behavior is not of primary importance to the analysis of user plans. It refers to the explanation and communication of these plans: planners must guarantee the correctness of the plans, which means that they can approve and confirm existing plans with a few basic changes. 9 This reduces their communication effort, but has no effect on their assessment relevance. If the artifact does not perform as expected and the user complains to the manufacturer, the latter may mean that the user is not in compliance with the user's planned changes. For example, arrange for someone to trade in their old car for a new type, identical to the old car, except that the old car is equipped with a catalytic converter. The driver fully uses the car as a fuel drive, including refueling with leaded fuel. If she then, after some time, complained about the poor performance of the car in the car showroom, she might notice that she used the car in the wrong way: she should change her customer plan to tank-filled fuel because she used a directional fuel converter charging and the performance of the car decreased. Poor performance in connection with changes to the user's plans can be charged against the user, and the designer and the discharge manufacturer are of course not responsible for communicating such changes to the user: if the owner of the car described above did not know, she would have used unleaded fuel, she cannot be charged against her car are having a bad time. However, the designer is responsible for this communication, please confirm the user analysis instead of sabotage. 10.1010101010

3.4

an unknown designer

Many artifacts, such as cell phones with cameras, are top -notch devices.They are usually manufactured by companies that clearly communicate and legally protect the origin of cultural relics and plans for its use.But the origin of many other artifacts9 agent that takes the existing use plan and communicates it without making any changes to the plan or involved artifacts is not a designer, either intuitively or in the analysis of the use plan.10 Real Life case is much more complex than suggested here using planning analysis or reports that emphasize the slowness of practice.Take the recent judicial processes around certain types of "light" cigarettes.The manufacturer's responsibility here is to say that these cigarettes are as harmful to the health of smokers as other types of cigarettes must weigh with the responsibility of the user to take care of their own health, the healthy reason of smoking effects, etc. The analysis can provide a framework for analysis of such cases, but notprovides an easy way to make decisions about them.

W. Cook

Bad ads have not been good.dese00ded in floral containers, rafts and agents are undoubtedly designed or can at the same time designing different agents because it is not precise science because it can determine the exact moment and identity and intention of original designers of theseAncient utensils.while is more important, determining that these facts can have historical importance, but with a practical point of view, this is not important.Int know how to use rafts, to different purposes, they know others to use them, when and whereWhoa. The identity of the designer and his intention is associated with the existing response practice .11 And the reason is not the intention of designers, but what is important to them is that even if they discovered in one or another. They arerecognition of this observation of the use of work parts. One is a phenomenon that can be called cognitive or evaluation selection. The history of people use floral containers, rafts and failures of the successful use provides proof of the rationality of the user plan, whichIt is so strong as the factors that the designer can lead (Houkes, 2006). The fact that the communication of the designers generally has nothing to do with the quality of the user plan. Initially, users can believe in the word designer.Even if the form in some way will be effective, the witness is supplemented and replaced by the user's experience. However, the user plan is responsible, although indirectly, the original communication continues to determine the use of work parts and assessing this purpose.Several generations of users usually change the use of traditional artificial products. No, this creative phenomenon does not destroy the purpose of why an unknown designer does not threaten the user plan. An instance of the teeth already used for some time. However, most people do not use brushesFor greenery to generation. This "paradox" can easily solve it by distinguishing people with artificial types and individuals: I bought it in a glass of bathrooms a few months ago, and this guy has a long time. The difference is more than that.In every good pharmacy or supermarket you can choose between several types of toothbrushes. They may be different in hair stiffness (from "soft", "medium" to "hard");

This argument presents an anti-intentional view of the history of technology, emphasizing how the practice of using artifacts gradually emerges, stabilizes, adapts, and/or disappears over time. Such descriptions of technological history often take the form of evolution (see, for example, Basalla, 1988). 12 Note that if a user of the artifact builds and communicates a different usage plan, they count as a designer, but again her testimony is quickly blocked and replaced by the user experience of the new usage plan.

Design is the construction of planning use

"Baby" to "adult") and different colors. Each of these varieties may have different brands. Not all of these differences will affect the use of toothbrushes: you can use a yellow toothbrush or a red toothbrush. However, there are still some differences: brushing children's teeth with adult hard brushes is considered to damage the baby's newly formed tooth enamel, and the long-term effect of brushing is not good. Therefore, there are practical differences between general types of toothbrushes, current different types of toothbrushes and personal tokens that consumers have bought and used. The phenomenon of the unknown designer is only steep at the level of (certain) types of working parts; in general, it was not applied to the type of workpiece. The source of each type sold in the store is clear: the manufacturer transferred the use of this toothbrush and is responsible for the rationality of the plan. Therefore, the phenomenon of unknown designers is explained in different ways and at different levels: At the level of the type of work part, the impact of the influence of cognition and protection from evaluation will minimize the impact, indicating that the intention of the designer is not irrelevant.. But it was only blocked by other sources of evidence. At the level of types of artificial products and labels, some think that this phenomenon does not play its main role. The intent of the designer and manufacturer is conveyed and linked to the evaluation.

evaluative conclusion

In this chapter, I present the use of artifacts and the analysis of the design use plan. In this usage plan analysis, the key to design involves creating and communicating the usage plan. I think the use of plan analysis is intentional: it highlights the state of mind of designers and users when they reconstruct their activities. In addition, I show how the analysis of the plan of use fits into four dimensions of artifact use and design phenomenology that initially seemed unacceptable: creative use, serendipity, unread manuals, and unknown designers. I further noted that this analysis provides a framework for evaluating the use and design of artifacts. As described here, the framework relies on three evaluation concepts: credibility, correctness, and expertise. The basic element is practical reason. Plans can be judged by their rationality, since use and design can be analyzed in terms of plans, and norms of rationality apply to these actions. Rational values are hardly all-inclusive because design and practice are judged not only on effectiveness and efficiency; other values such as safety and sustainability are not considered in this paper. One of the values we discussed earlier is the concept of being (not) actually used. This value cannot be derived from rationality: according to the use plan analysis, any use plan that meets the criteria of practical rationality is "acceptable" in the important sense of being efficient and effective. However, the difference between professional and non-professional (re)design can be added to the evaluation framework. As mentioned in section 3.1,

48 years

Wow

This difference reflects the division of labor that exists in most modern societies. Thus, a plan of use made by a professional designer is socially and legally superior to a plan made by a non-professional designer, although abuse based on "non-professional" plans can be very effective. One can move beyond viewing the division of labor as a brutal social fact by adding a third element: we can see professional designers as experts. But in the analysis of the plan of use, their expertise is not primarily about the product, but about the means to effectively achieve the goal. Professional designers are often considered experts, and their testimony confirms this: When asked why they believe a new car can be used effectively as a means of personal transportation, most are likely to answer that it was designed for that purpose Designed. Often that expertise becomes obsolete after a while: if someone asked her why she believed her five-year-old car could be used effectively for personal transportation, she would probably refer to her own experience rather than the fact that the design is used for transportation. This shift in evidence suggests that the relationship between designers and users is not only social but also sociocognitive (Houkes, 2006), and is therefore a suitable subject for further evaluative research. The assessment framework presented above is far from complete, but it contains some practically relevant concepts not found in other analyzes of design philosophy. Therefore, I conclude that the analysis of the plan of use provides a phenomenologically feasible and evaluatively useful account of the use and design of artifacts, in which intention plays a crucial role.

Literature Basalla, G., 1988, Technology Evolution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Bratman, M., 1987, intentions, plans and practical reasons, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Bucciarelli, LL, 1994, Design engineers, Mit Press, Cambridge, MA.Collins, H. M. I Evans, R., 2003, third wave of scientific research: Study of expertise and experience, Soc.Ergela.Science.32: 235-296.Houkes, W., 2006, Knowledge of Artifacts Function, Stud.History.Phil.Science.37: 102-113.Houkes, W., Vermaas, P.E., Dorst, K. I De Vries, M.j., 2002, Design and use as a program: Theory of action, des.Ergela.23: 303-320.Houkes, W. and Vermaas, P.E., 2004, Activity and function: Another metaphysical case for artifacts, Monist 87: 52-71.Houkes, W. and Vermaas, P.E., 2006, Conducting technology as the use of planned design, in: Technology behavior, P. P. C. C. L. Slob, ed., Springer, Dordrecht, p.203-210.Hubka, V. and Eder, W.E., 1998, Technical System Theory: General Conceptual Theory for Engineering Design, Springer, Berlin.Latour, B., 1991, technology is a sustainable society, in: Sociology Monsters: essays on power, technology and domination, J. Law, ur., Routledge, London, p.103-131.McLaughlin, P., 2001, Functions Explained, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Neander, K., 1991, teleological concept of 'functions', Aust.J. Phil.69: 454-468.Pollock, J., 1995, Cognitive Carpentry: Constructing a Human Blueprint, Mit Press, Cambridge, MA.

Design is planned to use

Preston, B., 2003, Van Marigold Beer: A reply from Vermaas and Houkes in Great Britain.J. Phil.znanost.54: 601–612.Roozenburg, NFM and Eekels, J., 1995, Product Design: Foundation and Method, John Wiley & Sons, Chicist.Schön, D.A., 1987, Practitioners of Educational Reflection, Essential Books, New York.Vermaas, P.E., and Houkes, W., 2006, Engineering function: Intention and structural suspension bridge, Stud.Povijest.Phil.znanost.37: 5-18.Vermaas, P.E., 2006, Physical connection: Technical functional attributes of technical workplaces and components, Stud.Povijest.Phil.znanost.37: 62-75.

The designer's fallacy and the technical imagination of Don Ihda

Sažetak Most literary critics have abandoned the idea that the meaning of the text lies in the author's intention, calling it a "deliberate fallacy". I believe I find parallels in many interpretations of technical design and call it the "designer's fallacy". This chapter deconstructs the utility of a simple design-plastic-material-ultimate-utility model by examining a wide range of historical technical designs and suggests consideration of unintended uses and consequences, limitations and possibilities of materiality, and cultural background. , are usually complex and multistable. I provide a sketch of a complex, interactive design explanation.

In the early 20th century, literary theory developed the idea of "deliberate misinterpretation". This is the idea that the meaning of a text is related to the author's intentions – if these can be discovered, then the meaning of the text will be determined. It is easy to see that this is the only practical way to determine the meaning, difficulties may arise. What if the author is long dead? Or how can you say that the author himself has told the truth even if you are alive? What about unexpected meanings or meanings that do not fit but are not preconceived? Therefore, a deliberate misinterpretation would recognize this difficulty and cannot be considered an appropriate interpretation of the report. There is, I think, a parallel "fallacy" that exists, at least implicitly, in the history of technical design. In its simplest form, what I call "designer abuse" is the idea that designers can design technology, its purpose and use. In turn, this error means that there is a degree of material neutrality or plasticity in objects that the designer can control. In short, the designer's misconception is "deistic" in the 18th century sense, that a designer God, using a plastic material, created a machine or artifact that seemed "intelligent" in terms of its design, and with the Execute method designed. Instead, I believe, the design process works very differently, implying a series of interrelationships between each designer, the materials that make the technology possible, and what

D. IHDE, University of Shixi

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

D. ur

Any technology can be installed. After the deconstruction of the deconstruction of individualistic design, literary and technical versions of misinterpretation infiltrated. First, some simple designers - some examples of Thomas Edison: Thomas Edison, an American inventor of the late 19th and 20th centuries, was the first to design and invent One of the men of the machine that reproduces sound - the principle of emission. The machine was originally a mechanical device consisting of the mouthpiece of one's mouth; it was a sensitive hole that would be connected to a sensitive opening. The sound waves entering the tube were in turn connected to a crystal needle that would follow the wave pattern on the rotating character. When the handle is turned, the speaker is in the tube, and the "recording" made is on the film. The same machine, plays, the process is reversed and can be heard well enough to understand and recognize the sounds, originally registered in Vol. - "Mary Had a Lamb. (NYRE, 2003, 89–90) here, the designers wanted to reproduce sound. However, the intention at this stage is still ambiguous, the main use of this machine comes from the capacity that initially appeared, and then only from the use of each plan. A rather primitive dictation machine. It is clear that it will be Used because of the very limited number of plays and because of the softness of the foil-knapsack only once or only once. Despite the machine, the machine was released in the usually glowing remarks that the technology promised in the late 19th century. Billed as a "miracle of the 19th century," it is a talking machine: it speaks, sings, laughs, laughs, croaks, whistles, whistles, repeats corner solos, imitates the human voice, and in every well-known Utters and pronounces every word perfectly in the language." (NYRE, 2003, 89)

If someone, looking back at Edison's early machines with anachronic insight into the later history history, may predict that early dominant use of the shooting equipment will quickly develop into recording music, which in turn would be some for example, early recording devices could only record only threeAnd a half to four minutes - so the played music had to last three and a half to four minutes, which is far above the traditional length of "pop songs" at a time when there are early recording devices.New machines require new practices, but in this case not "intentionally".The phonograph came after the phone and at least once was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.Here, the intention of the designer was to enhance the device capable of transferring speech to speech distances, intended as prosthetic technology for hearing impaired (Bella's mother).The early forerunner of "chatting" on the internet, the party line on which all the neighbors "talked" was not intended, let alone a telephone line that followed in the early 20th century in America.Even a typewriter is originally designed as a prosthetical technology to help blind or short -sighted people allow them to make a legible text.Instead, as Friedrich Kittler pointed out, the typewriter was mostly a business machine who transformed a secretary from the end of the 19th century from a man to a woman.

Designer's fallacy and technical imagination

(Male secretaries often refuse to fit into this "machine" which they feel will make their physical work impossible, but young women, who seek both public roles and preschool skills with a keyboard or piano, easily find new roles)! (Kittler, 1990) The designer's fallacy also plays a role in Langdon Winner's most famous story, "Do Artifacts Have Politics?" (1986). This article traces the history of Robert Moses' project for the Park Avenue Bridge on Long Island. Winner argued that Moses' ulterior motive was to keep the lower class and race out of the pristine, growing suburbs of Long Island. For example, he deliberately designed low bridges to prevent large trucks and double-decker cars from using the road. In a sense, when considering the demographics of the early 20th century, this material strategy had some success - but the counterattack strategy defeated any policy that was used at all. Eisenhower's development of the interstates in the 1950s required all interstates to have high bridges so that trucks—including those loaded with ballistic missiles during the Cold War—could pass over them, providing what we Long Islanders call the longest "paved" parking lot places" for multi-lane highways. Coolness wins over suburban preservation.1 The language and concept of "intention," though still dominant, was overtaken by Edward Tenner in his famous book Things Bite Back One Mouth: Technology and the Retaliation of Unintended Consequences (1996). Tenner cataloged and categorized a large number of technologies that may have been designed for a specific application and ultimately had disastrous or unintended consequences. He forged Toffler's idea of a paperless society, in which "making a paper copy of anything is a primitive use of [electronic word processing] machines and disrupts their thinking" (quoted in Toffler, 1970, ix), confronting the higher theses of society "today ." (Tenner, 1996, ix) or something as simple as designing a home security system to increase security, he says, by generating false alarms and a large police response to security breaches: "In Philadelphia, 3000 calls from automated systems over 157,000 years is really ; by diverting the equivalent of 58 full-time police officers to useless calls, these systems may have fueled crime elsewhere." (Tenner, 1996, 7) Tenner's example speaks of unexpected, but also unpredictable effects. The samples shown here relate to both simple and complex techniques. I have lived through the long claim that almost unlimited free energy can be generated from nuclear sources, from the near-melting conditions at Three Mile Island, to the shutdown of the Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant on Long Island, designed as part of the designer's trajectory of intent, but so far it has already ended up with a whopping 4,000 .000,000 dollar "Museum of Technology" has so far been useless. As you can see from the simpler examples above, the designer's intent might break down into secondary uses, or perhaps not provide the intended use at all. And, with unintended consequences, the theme becomes the unpredictability of technology use. But there is still persistence 1. The discussion points to a discrepancy between initial design intent and subsequent design changes, but the argument I am making is that in both cases the designer cannot simply control the outcome.

D. ur

The designer's fallacy, which somehow determines the "intent", whether the outcome will be successful or not. My arguments are focused on the framework and description of the design project. I hope to build a description that recognizes the more complex relationship between designers, technology and products that ultimately use technology in different social and cultural situations. My approach is in a sense similar to the descriptivist approach in scientific research and the history of science, which ends with the end result of examining development in process (Kuhn, Latour, Pickering). I will pave the way for my peers by looking at different varieties of technology and the embedded ways in which they operate. Again, I am against the idea of individualistic design and against developing a more complex set of relationships between the multiple inputs in a technology and the multiple multistable capabilities of any single technology Lynn White, Jr. Wind-powered prayer wheels or "automatic prayer" devices" can be found in India. (White, Jr., 1971) It was, and still is, a manual prayer wheel, a drum that turns on a handle and can have prayers written on it. surface and then turns with prayers. The "automatic" prayer wheel of windmill equipment allows "nature" to do the work. Later, larger versions of windmills appeared in Mesopotamia in the 9th century. These devices are used to power applications such as milling .Moving into Europe, the development of 'windmills' helped the Dutch lowlands in the 9th century enter an early 'technological revolution' of high energy use.Finally, today we are entering the demonstration phase of wind energy, with almost 20% of Denmark's energy coming from farms wind farm. Such wind farms proposed for offshore or reefs are undergoing technical review along the NIMBY [not-in-my-back-yard] front in the UK and US. Overall, it could be argued that the 'same ' technology, wind farm equipment provides different power, but each example is culturally different. The need for relatively constant prayer is very different from the need for renewable energy, and calling each a "use" is culturally different Abstracted from complexity. The "same" technology is embedded differently in different historical and cultural contexts. But this also means that the use of the "same" technology in different contexts can be appropriate in the field. However, a closer look also shows that, What I mean by the "same" technology varies greatly in different contexts. The Indian wind-powered prayer wheel is a relatively small device, while Danish and today's high-tech windmills can be up to 100 meters long; Velocity responds with a faster or slower RPM, while the latter rotates at the same speed by autonomously adjusting the blades. Both involve a process of what Andrew Pickering calls "tuning", which during development has been called a "dance of action" (Pickering, 1995). In design, "tuning" and "dance of action" can often reverse the "designer's intent". Bruno Latour made the famous post-it example well known in science

Designer's fallacy and technical imagination

The action designer tested the material characteristics of different adhesives and accidentally produced adhesive that would only temporarily be glued to -Pa was obviously a failure in the "design adhesive". The derivative began to consider the possible new apps and present the idea of praise for songs. (Latour, 1987, 140, 140) This is a new way to use.Whether it is inadvertent or planned, this is a large postal market today. Some people can say that if someone takes over the laterals, not -human and his actors have changed a man (designer) here! I often use similar examples.s.sFor millions of years, "handbumpy" (usually considered a scraping and slaughter tool), take a 'handbile' before a million years ... You probably spend the chip, and now he realized they had been used.Yu cutting can even even use work, and we get an ancient version of the postal story. A conscious model considering the development of technology: now it would seem to be a rule, not an exception."(I admit that I can't think of it), there seems to be nothing that will not destroy others, unexpected or unexpected apps and results. The first design is usually a situation, even the design of a subsequent change.It seems to be applicable. Like a pattern, technology in potential seems to include multiple apps or development plans. If even the easiest artificial products are, the Ahulean handicaps can be used for different use, then the result is deliberately designed multiple tools for Multi tools-Inly (Swiss pocket sword) almost different. Multi -mults can truly become a model of modern emerging technologies. Some people have started to think that multiple information technology processing is moving in the direction of individual large and individual small multi -dated instruments.is a Swiss pocket sword, a mobile technology is a mobile phone, a digital camera, a barcode reader, E -panta equipment, etc. The only small multi -domestic technology and large home party units (TV, DVD, computer and economics, fun, communication, communication, communication, communicationCommunication, communication, the dimensions of communication associated with screens, etc. Although most of them are still technological technology, it is a reasonable technology technology.However, fantasy is a form of imagination.In design activities, he also played a role in the role of the back and the period.I think it can be said that technology technology began to appear in the medieval school.At first it was a slow but accelerated by acceleration, which began to form a cultural form of Europe.Lynn White once believed that a technological revolution had happened during this period.The construction of high quality Gothic cathedral requires previously unused machine and construction technology.Moore style, but these styles spread to greater extremes, Sharp, notre lada Paris, Keln, all borrowed air arches and glass stones.

D. ur

However, people point out that there is a similar change in visual language in the world of imagination. Bruegel's fantastic painting is still very much an "organic" or "animal" fantasy. The devil, dragon, demons, great monsters are clearly "biological forms", however wonderful .But by the 13th century, machines began to use their imaginations.Roger Bacon describes fantastic machines, such as autonomous vehicles, underwater vessels, flying airplanes and other machines to be produced. Futurist "visualization" in his laptop 1920).I suggest that a certain form of technical imagination or fantasy begins to take precedence. This may be a reflection of the world, as many fundamental new machines began to appear and develop in Europe. Earlier, Islamic culture, Mongol invasions, and post-Islamic culture and cross-cultural exchanges led to multicultural trade, travel, and experience. Marco Polo's Far Eastern Adventure. Lynn White (jr.), Joseph Needham, and others began to recognize the technological cross- cultural trade in the middle of the 20th century. As mentioned earlier, spices, guns, compass, silk, windmills, all moved to medieval Europe, and were adapted and developed. Optics, all are HAZE (1038) better known than the West . The trajectory of lens production ended, resulting in the announcement of telescopes and microscopes, which caused the early scientific revolution and challenged the scientific infrastructure. Today, these are all relatively normal competitions. However, I have to look at the "design errors" I discussed here. Every new invention issued by Europe is usually a problem of obsession, which is suitable for new applications and development. Although China invented gunpowder, it did not successfully produce artillery! However, in the thirty years of war, dozens of weapons were used to demolish French castles. (DeLanda, 1991 .) through this observation I will begin to stay away from "design thinking".-In design), when the ability grows and clearly, it suggests possible "processes". You can say that gunpowder explosiveness uses "suggestions". However, at least in the beginning, these customs can be related to culture. Long before the cannon, the feudal system produced a system of castle land, where lords who must protect the population must build a defense tower. For centuries, the form of combat has been concentrated in national defense strategies and uses supplies and resources to defend against attackers. This strategic preference has been well served and designed for some time. In the last few centuries, siege aircraft have also become more and more complicated. With the evolution of the Roman era, trebuchets, missiles, etc. However, none of these engines can easily penetrate a wall - artillery is possible. In the history of design, the cannon is in a sense modern. No one knows who "invented" the cannon, although many attempts were made to make tools, including the production of an early wooden cannon (not successful). Worship of a personal designer had not yet emerged.

Designer's fallacy and technical imagination

When I recently visited Matson from Germany, my guide Professor Bernhardt Irrgang pointed out that there is a cathedral in a cathedral. Although it is sometimes the name of a famous architect, this name is actually "school", so the same is true for such architects - artists of the Renaissance. A room or an office is the task of maintaining the cathedral of the whole accompanying person. As Foucault pointed out, the author is usually the same -individual authors a deeper connection between the "intentional" fallacy and the "designer" fallacy with the advent of modernity. designer's invention (or later designers) and materials. What plays out is a series of interactions between the designer and the materials used - this is a two-way connection, and Parklin's "adaptation" and "resistance" play a role in it. (Pickering, 1995) My first example was people's long desire to fly. The story of Icaros and the technique of bird feathers and wax are clearly just fantasy. Similarly, Roger Bagon's description of an airplane and Leonardo Vinci's later description of an airplane also remain in the realm of imagination, although Da Vinci's understanding the bird's curved wing is a step in the right direction. Almost everyone has seen the documentary about the early flight experiments. These documentaries usually have a flying structure -Morpower -Diven -and their subsequent fall and fall. But keep in mind that serious experiments began in that industrial century, the 19th century. From the beginning, people understood that wings should be light and strong. The design was originally biological. Bird wings were sometimes bat wings as patterns. But how clumsy after the design! The gliding machine began to succeed to a certain extent. Many experiments have used light materials, wood or bamboo and glue canvas or other light fabrics. It is interesting that we do not want to follow the trajectories of the fantasy of human flight to allow understanding the demand for light power devices. Historically, we think of it as an "internal combustion engine" or a propeller. The Wright Brothers' airplane is a mixture of multiple technologies. The Wright Brothers are versatile lightweight technical experts - bicycle manufacturers - they borrowed the technology of the windmill, a propeller that moved in the air rather than being driven by the wind .Then they came up with wing and control designs, some of which were designed to accommodate other people's attempts, and eventually created the first powered flight (I've ignored the historical controversy of who actually flew, as there were many contenders).In this history , what we really have is a competitive "chosen dance" through repeated experiments, until it finally achieved a small success and included human flight. From 1903 to this century, flying has evolved from biopsy to more and more varieties of flight. These variants are increasingly different from the origin of flight. The simplest example is a fixed wing on flexible and mobile wings. Flying was originally imagined as a specific human flight and was never realized. It is the closest to reality

D. ur

The skater and their relatives may be suspended. This flight is reserved for extreme sports fans. The only bicycle technology is a light aircraft driven by a propeller driven by a trained bicycle. He successfully flew over the Gesson Strait. Although it is human, it is almost like the elegance of birds. However, it has a layer of polyester film with a weight of only a few kilograms. It is the peak of the light path. This is the material needs of this flight method. What I want to clarify is that you cannot find pure plastic things similar to materials, and designers can transparently control it. Instead, people discover the process of materialism and testing, sometimes with a satisfactory result. According to the design model of delusions, the second middle point is the "use" of invention and technology. To maintain the analogy with literary practice, this will be the reader's response or response. What are the results of literature or technical products? As for my example of flight, the surge of use is evident in history - updating the capability tree. In less than ten years, the aircraft began to be used for the military. By the First World War, "Dogfights", bombs and reconnaissance appeared between the planes; commercial development also began very early; "Barnstormers" and the fun use of stunts in cascading flights; competition, such as Lindberg's flying distance that breaks the distance of the Atlantic Ocean and so on. Each use will change the previous approach. Until World War II, the Lightning war used its own version of "deterrent" and "Stuk" dive bomber. Until now, unmanned "predators" and "smart bombs" have been deployed, replacing the former trenches of the army of war or discipline attacked each other. I need not follow all of these trajectories, but it is clear that Oville and Wilbur did not foresee the speed or variety of the results of their invention .As the interconnection between designer and material contains a set of uncertain regulation and resistance, it can produce the result of never simple planning, as well as the result and uncertainty of multiple use. I tried to show that the gap between designer and material is so large that the interaction between designer and material excludes a simple or transparent concept of simple plasticity or passion of materials. Instead, the interaction explores and interactively. In the second gap, the control or influence of the designer is now used by the workers, but the users now play a more important role. As if the scope of imagination or practical application is possible, the uncertainty is here multi-purpose. A set of particularly interesting examples comes from clever methods that can defeat technologies -without using. For example, a video surveillance camera may fail due to a laser indicator of oil in the lens. The anti-short of hard steel steering wheel is precisely because hard colorless steel is prone quick crispness, and easy to break through when spraying with frozen dispersants. The "war" between the police is a bit complicated. They decided to use radar (now laser speed detection equipment) to intercept speeding drivers, and "rebels" develop technology to detect radar signals or confuse laser reading equipment. Therefore, different directions start from the same, different or different technologies.

Designer's fallacy and technical imagination

Now we can draw some conclusions from this design fallacy study. First of all, although the language of design ability in the textbook - can be identified in engineering, architecture and other design textbooks - but I tried to show that the design situation is much more complex than the usual assumptions, and transparency is much lower. Designer-material and man-made product-user relationships are complex and multifaceted. Obviously, new technology will change when adopted - all examples show that these practices do not follow simple models of "security". The outcome is uncertain, but certain , and it is diverse. In addition, the expected results and not expected results are unpredictable, but the results are still produced. In the end, the results of this study are more like an interpretation of the relationship between human technology use models. Among them, people, materials and practice are subject to dynamic changes. If this is the case, it will also affect design education. The first is that the design process should be considered as mistakes and accidents. Some worry that this knowledge can be discouraged, but it can require and more cooperative and mutually critical. I also implicitly suggested that in the last decades the rewriting in the history of science and philosophy of science, the new scientific sociology and cultural and scientific research have carefully studied the development of technological development.2 .2

Delanda Literature, M., 1991, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines, Swerve editions, Press, New York, p.12-14.Kittler, F., 1990, The Mechanized Philosopher, in: In Search of Nietzsche, L.A.Rickels, ed., State University of New York Press, Albany, Ny.Latour, B., 1987, science at work, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma.Nyre, L., 2003, loyalty is important: sound media and realism in the 20th century, dissertation, the Department of Media Studies, the University of Bergen, the University College of Vold, Norway.Pickering, A., 1995, The Magle of Practice: Time, Agency, and Science, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p. 102. Tenner, E., 1996, Why Things Bite Back: Technology and the Realtation of UtentendedConsquens, Alfred Knopf, New York.Toffler, A., 1970, Future Shock, Bantam, New York White, JR., L., 1971, cultural climate and technological progress in the Middle Ages, Viator 2: 171–201.Winner, L., 1986, artifacts have politics?, In: The Whale and the Rector, L. Winner, ed., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p.19-39.

2 U Palgrave Macmillan van Ihde, D.

Technological design as an evolutionary process Philip Brey

The evolution of technological artifacts is often viewed as distinct from the evolution of biological species. Technological artifacts are often considered the result of the intentional intelligence of designers, while biological species and organisms are considered the result of evolution by natural selection. But is technology really also the result of an evolutionary process rather than intelligent design? In recent decades, technological evolution has emerged, which uses the concepts and principles of evolutionary biology to describe and explain the process of technological innovation and technological change. In this chapter, I focus on three well-known theories by Georges Bassara, Joel Mokyr, and Robert Unger and examine the extent to which these theories provide genuine evolutionary explanations of technological innovation and change. Finally, I want to analyze how these theories frame technical design: as a blind evolutionary process, as a purposeful activity of the designer, or as a combination of the two.

Design and evolution

Before the evolution offered a different view, almost everyone believed that living organisms were the creations of intelligent creators - God.For centuries, this belief has played a central role in an important argument for the existence of God, the design argument.Design arguments come in many forms, but everyone revolves around the belief that there must be a god or an intelligent creator, because organisms in nature are too complex and complex to occur randomly or natural.The most famous argument about design is an argument of an hourly clockwise formulated by theologian William Paley in 1802.Paleye's argument begins with the premise that living organisms and organs have the same complexity and purpose as designed artifacts.For example, an eye is a complex organ of vision, just like a telescope of a complex artefact that helps form.Next Paley

P. Brey, University of Twente

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

P. Brey

argues that if one finds a complex artifact that is a telescope or a view from the ground, then people will not believe that it is the product of natural forces, but believe that it must have a creator. Function or use. Evolution for the Blind Urar explains that Richard Dawkins' theory of evolution by natural selection is a compelling alternative to the Paley Report. Dawkins argues that the complexity and functionality found in living things can be explained as the result of long-term time courses, in which less complex organic systems acquire complexity and functionality in a series of steps with less variation, and the system with the strongest is the selected (best) system. , but only during the blind process of natural selection. He argued that natural selection is completely different from goal-directed design because there are no goals. No vision, no vision, no vision at all. It has no purpose for the future. it owns it. No vision, no vision, no vision at all. It would be a blind watchmaker if one could say that it plays the role of a watchmaker in nature. (Dawkins, 1986, 5). The theory of evolution is now grounded in science, although it is still used in religious theories of biological life, such as creationism, creation science, etc., but the design argument has been discredited, although it is still used. More recently, the theory of intelligent design theory (Dembsky, 1999). Thanks to the new scientific orthodoxy, the origin of living things and artifacts today is thought to be quite different: blind natural selection versus the directed and intelligent activity of a future, future-future designer. In this chapter I will ask whether this fundamental difference can be maintained. I'm not doing this by questioning the design arguments, but asking whether it's best to explain the design artifacts as a result. In goal design, not evolution. The emergence of technological evolution in recent decades has led to the use of concepts and principles derived from evolutionary biology to describe and explain processes of technological innovation and technological change (see Ziman (2000), for a review). In what follows, I want to examine the extent to which these theories provide a true evolutionary account of technological innovation and analyze how they explain technological design: as a blind evolutionary process, as a targeted activity of the designer, or both, and there is.

2 In this section, the evolutionary theory of technology and evolutionary biology will briefly introduce the evolutionary method of contemporary technology.Then I will analyze the conditions that the technical theory must be fulfilled in order to truly develop and how much these conditions should be adopted.

Technical design as an evolutionary process

The theory of evolution in technology has been known since the 1980s. These theories use concepts and analogies from evolutionary biology to explain technological change and innovation. Some of these theories can be found in early extensions of developmental theories to new fields, such as evolutionary economics (Andersen, 1994; Dopfer, 2005) and evolutionary epistemology (Hazlweg and Hooker, 1989; Callebaut and Pinxten, 1987, 1987). Another source of inspiration is found in more general attempts to construct a general theory of evolution that goes beyond biological evolution. This theory (which incorporates ideas from evolutionary epistemology) is also known as the theory of universal selection or universal Darwinism (Cziko, 1995; Dennett, 1995). The central claim of universal Darwinism is that the Darwinian principles of evolution lie at the basis not only of biological processes, but also of all creativity and are the key to the realization of the entire functional order. Therefore, biological evolution is only a specific example of the more general phenomenon of evolution by selection. A prominent approach to the general theory of selection is the memory approach to cultural evolution pioneered by Richard Dawkins (1976) and subsequently developed by many proponents (Blackmore, 1999; Aunger, 2000; 2002; 2002). According to memory theory, human culture is realized and transmitted through cultural units called memes. These are units of meaning that can express any culturally specific thought, behavior or design. Memes are like genes in that they replicate and can be passed on and compete with other memes to survive according to Darwinian principles. There is now a multifaceted evolutionary approach to technological change and innovation. Some of these approaches develop more explicitly, while others use concepts from evolutionary biology in different ways. The influential SCOT approach in science and technology studies (STS) is an example of the latter (Bijker, Hughes, & Pinch, 1987). This approach argues that the development of technological artifacts consists of a semi-revolutionary process of mutation and selection, in which technological developers design and produce different kinds of artifacts, choosing between them and other actors. A more coherent evolutionary theory of technology enabled a more systematic use of evolutionary concepts and principles to analyze and explain technological changes and innovation processes. In the following three sections, I analyze three prominent evolutionary theories of technological change and innovation developed by George Basalla, Joel Mokyr, and Robert Aunger. But to do this, I will first briefly outline the most important concepts and principles of evolution developed by evolutionary biology and relate them to technology. Modern evolutionary theory adheres to three basic principles and assumes that biological species evolve through natural selection. Evolution is the increasing adaptation of a species to its environment, and natural selection is the genetic property of natural conditions that favor the organism with the greatest fitness, allowing the organisms it carries with it to have the greatest fitness. This idea of evolution by natural selection is generally thought to be based on three principles: phenotypic variation, heredity, and differential fitness.

P Bray

1. Phenotypical variation.This is the idea that all individuals of a particular species show differences in their behavior, morphology and/or physiological characteristics (ie "phenotype").For example, single wolves may differ in hair color, tail length, bone density, aggression, sexual abilities, vision, etc. 2. Leaning.This is the idea that some variations are among the individuals within the type of hereditary, which means that certain variations are transmitted from one generation to another.In other words, descendants will be more similar to their parents than other individuals in the population.For example, if the visual sharpness is the genetic feature of the wolves, then the descendants of a particular wolf with high visual sharpness will have a tendency to high sharp vision higher than average.3. Differential adaptability.This is the idea that some individuals are better adapted to the environment than others and therefore have a more chance of survival and reproduction.That is, individuals within the species differ in their ability, that is, the inclination of reproduction (leaving offspring).For example, wolves with good vision will leave more descendants of wolves with weak vision, because a good form is a trait that leads the wolves to better adapt to the environment, so that the properties with good vision tend to favored the benevolent.Wolves who multiply.The consequence of these three principles is therefore evolution of natural selection: traits that improve the ability multiply in posterity, and individuals within the species are increasingly endowed with these traits.This assumes that the local environment where the selection takes place remains unchanged.If the local environment changes, traits that have previously improved the ability can become less strong, while other features can improve the ability.Such changes in the environment simply change the course of evolution;The same basic principles of natural selection are still at work.The above three principles are the basic principles of biological evolution formulated by Darwin in its origin of species (1859).Two other principles specify the basic mechanisms for the processes described in these three principles.One detailed basic mechanism of inheritance, as genetics tells us, is a genetic reproduction: 4. Genetic reproduction.Inheritance of traits occurs with gene reproduction.Others elaborate on potential mechanisms that drive variations: 5. mutation and recombination.The two main factors lead to the appearance of variations: mutations, random changes in the genome and recombination, crossing between the gene allele during the meiotic cell division.The sixth important principle of evolutionary biology is already implied in the previous: 6th blindness.Mutation and selection are blind processes, which means they do not depend on predicting or learning.In other words, these are nonteleological processes, which result in no purpose or goal, but only natural environmental conditions.

Technical design as an evolutionary process

With these principles we can now see what is needed for a theory of technology in the direct sense. It is clear that the development of technology is not a biological process, because technological artifacts are not biological species. Therefore, the evolutionary theory of technology cannot be part of evolutionary biology. Instead, a theory of technology can only be evolution in a similar sense: assuming that technological change and innovation depend on principles similar to those underlying biological evolution. That is, there must be structural coherence between the two processes so that most or all of the principles apply to technological change, albeit in an altered form. The more applicable principles a theory has, the more powerful it develops. The most important principles are the first three, because they are the fundamental principles of the theory of evolution. Technological theories that use at least two technologies similar to these three core principles can be called weak analogs, while all three sums of at least all three peripheral principles can be called strong analogs.

George Barzar theory

Technical historian George Basalla suggested the theory of evolution of technological changes in his book "Evolution of Technology", which aims to explain the technological innovation, including the appearance of new artificial products and between society between useful products of selection (Barcell, 1988).his technological evolutionary idea "analog" or "metaphor". It is said that "the metaphor and analogy of the nucleus of all enlarged analyzes or critical thinking."(1988, 3). Basalla believes that metaphors and analogies can be used to build a new scientific analysis and explanations.Basalla believe that the appropriate analysis object of technological changes are artificial products, because artificial products are usually the result of innovative technical activities.artificial products with a species and compared a certain type of individual artificial products with members of the species (1988, 137). What can be compared with artificial products and phenotics. It believes that there are obvious differences between types of artificial products: there are many different types of hammers, steam engines or cars.Basalla claims that there is also a heritage between artificial products. This is, after artificial products, it can be descendants of the same artificial products or similar artificial products. The main difference is that the work parts will not spread;They are copied by human creators. However, Basalla believes that the breeding process is similar to the genetic process.Basalla also claims that selective pressure plays a role in artificial products, selects some for use and copy, while others are rejected.in accordance with the characteristics of artificial products better or more adaptable to environmental conditions. It believes that four factors play a role in the choice of cultural relics: economics, army, society and culture."Economic

P. Brey

Restrictions, military demands, ideological pressures, political manipulation and power of cultural values, fashion and trends.(139).Therefore, it can be said that artifacts are differently adaptable to such limitations.Basalla claims that the mechanism for the creation of new variants of artifacts is not a mechanism of mutation and recombination.It is often a mechanism that involves a conscious human selection.Likewise, the selection of artifacts is not a blind process, because it includes human selection.Basalla believes that the selection of artifacts is similar to artificial selection, that is, the selection of phenotypes in the cultivation of animals and plants, which is not very similar to natural selection.He claims: "Different artifacts do not stem from the accidental remodeling of certain key ingredients, but are the result of conscious processes in which human taste and judgment follow in the search for biological, technological, psychological, social, economic or cultural. (1988, 136). It must be admitted that the human choice is limited by economic, military, social and cultural factors that are beyond complete control of man. Basalla, however, claims that the participation of people in a conscious, purposeful choice has led to technological and biological evolution. Incoming between. Basalla claims.that there is another inconsistency in terms of concepts of species and hybrids. The types of artifacts are easily combined to produce new types, which means that the types of artifacts can be easily crossed, while different types of organisms generally do not cross (1988, 137).There is no genetically similar reproductive unit in Basalline theory and evolution that in Basall's theory; genes and genotypes.In conclusion, Basall's theory of evolution of technological artifacts exploits many similarities between biological and technological evolution, although she admits some of the differences.Basalla seems to claim that similarities between the principles of variations, heredities and differential suitability are applied to technological evolution, while the principles of genetic reproduction, mutation and recombination and blindness are not valid.In his theory, technological innovations are therefore weak, but the resemblance to biological evolution is not strong.The legacy of artifacts is understood as continuously.Generations of artifacts have similar trends as the previous generations.The mutation and selection are not blind, but include conscious human subjects that bring purposeful elections: the choice of creating novelties and about the choice of artifacts.

Theory Joela Mokyra

Economist Joel Mokyr proposed a theory of technological evolution. He does not pay attention to the evolution of artificial products like Basall's theory, but he pays attention to the evolution of technical knowledge (Mokyr, 1996; 1998; 1999; 2000a; B). More specifically, he proposed a theory of the evolution of technology or technical tricks, reflecting the difference between the known knowledge of Gilbert Rayl "How" and knowledge "that". Mokyr criticizes the method of evolution of artificial products

Technological design as an evolutionary process

Units of choice, like Basallina, because he believes that technological changes are best analyzed as changes in technology rather than changes in artifacts. New technologies for washing hands, training animals, or interstellar navigation may contain no artifacts at all. Furthermore, he argues that many artifacts are meaningless without specific instructions, and that their identity can only be obtained by adding a series of "how-to" instructions. Mokyr's theory was inspired by the development of evolutionary epistemology as well as the evolutionary approach to economics. Mokyr's goal is to develop an evolutionary framework that facilitates the analysis of the root causes of technological change. Like Basalla, he thinks evolutionary biology provides a useful "analogue" or "metaphor" for this. Following Gilbert Ryle, Mokyr distinguishes between "how" knowledge and "what" knowledge. He claims that society has developed two types of basic knowledge that help it deal with the world. The first is what he calls "useful knowledge." This is the knowledge of "what" that resides in people's heads or storage devices, from where it can be retrieved. Useful knowledge includes the observation and classification of natural phenomena, and the laws and regularities that explain these phenomena. It includes scientific knowledge as well as technical knowledge, including quantitative empirical relationships between attributes and variables. Mokyr refers to the total collection of useful knowledge about the world in the human mind and storage devices as Ω (Omega). In addition to useful knowledge, there are techniques that are a form of "how to" knowledge. A technique is a set of instructions or recipes that tell the user how to manipulate aspects of the environment to achieve a desired result. Like "useful knowledge," technology resides in the human brain and storage devices. For example, a "how to" manual is a codified set of techniques. However, many techniques are tacit and unconscious. Mokyr calls the total number of technologies that exist in society λ (Lambda). Mokyr believed in "useful knowledge" instead of technology or Ω instead of λ. That is, he believed that technology primarily depends on the knowledge that makes technology possible. For example, he argues that bicycle technology depends in part on the mechanics of bicycles that make bicycles possible. In Mokyr's analysis, technology is the end product of knowledge in Ω. Ω defines what society knows, and λ defines what it can do. Mokyr compares "useful knowledge" to genotypes and technology to phenotypes. He argues that an evolutionary theory of technology must somehow incorporate the distinction between genotype and phenotype by incorporating the distinction between the underlying structures that constrain manifested entities. In technology, the underlying structure is Ω and the manifest entity is λ. There is a mapping between Ω and λ when one or more elements in Ω give one or more elements in λ. For example, the now irrelevant theory of humoral diseases led to a number of medical techniques, including bloodletting and washing of febrile patients. Mokyr recognizes that the relationship between Ω and λ differs from the genotype-phenotype relationship in several ways. For example, the gene and the phenotypic trait it causes must be part of the same host organism. However, if a person masters the technology, he does not need to know the "useful knowledge" that forms its basis, which may be stored in other brains or memory devices, and may even be lost.

P Bray

Mokyr argues that technology is subject to selection pressure. When a technique is used, its results are evaluated using a series of selection criteria to determine whether it should be used again. This is similar to how selection criteria select living specimens and determine whether they will survive and reproduce, he said. He cared little whether the choice was made by the same human agent who had previously used the technology or by another human agent. Agents can reselect techniques they used before, and other agents can learn or imitate techniques, which is also a form of selection. When the technique is selected again, it is reproduced in Mokyr's sense. Thus, technological reproduction can occur through learning and imitation or through re-selection by human agents. Mokyr points out that the analogy between biological selection and technological choice breaks down at one important point: the choice of technology is not blind, but is carried out by conscious units, companies and households that choose it. In this model, people are not selected, but selectors. Mokyr claims that there is also selection among the elements ω. This is not about their perceived usefulness, but about their perceived authenticity or authenticity that determines whether they are conservative and used to create technology. Their truth is determined by socially established rules, like scientific rules. The conditions that create variation (or "innovation") are not entirely clear to Mokyr. He called the creation of new "useful knowledge" mutations and defined such mutations as "discoveries about natural phenomena", without specifying their mechanism. Indeed, he suggests that the creation of new technologies often comes from new combinations of knowledge in ω. He considered the possibility that human agents generally encourage the expenditure of resources on innovation, but did not develop the idea. Furthermore, new technologies are not necessarily the result of new knowledge (combination). Technology can also change through experience and learning by doing, or it can arise from "pure novelty", such as mutations. The use of new technologies can also affect the collection of "useful knowledge". For example, the invention of the telescope influenced the knowledge of astronomy, and the early steam engine influenced the development of theoretical physics. Thus, technological evolution can also be a Lamarckian feedback mechanism from phenotype to genotype in Mokyr's theory, or from λ to ω. Mokyr's theory, like Basalla's, believes that the three basic ideas of Darwinism relate in some form to technological change. Unlike Basalla, Mokyr maintains the distinction between genotype and phenotype by playing both roles, what knowledge and how it is provided, and assuming a mapping relationship between technical knowledge. Thus he could adhere to the principle of genetic reproduction, according to which most technologies depend on basic knowledge, and their reproduction often depends on the existence of this knowledge. Mokyr also adheres to the principles of mutation and recombination better than Basalla. A combination of new technologies. This analogy is somewhat broken because technology can also mutate and then replicate itself without fundamentally changing.

Technical design as an evolutionary process

Therefore, the analogy between Mokyr's further biological evolution and technical changes compared to Basalla, and a report is proposed, where technological changes are very similar to biological evolution, although there are texts. Mokyr does not follow the principle of blindness, because it believes that mutation and choice are controlled by conscious humanintermediaries.in the theory of Basalla, Pseudo -painting is the object of mutation, reproduction and selection. In Mokyra theory is an object of knowledge technique. In these two cases, the work of these facilities can be described by evolutionary conditions, but this is still a direct result of human consultation and targetedactions.

Robert Aunger's theory

Anthropologist Robert Aunger has described technological change in the context of memetics (Aunger, 2002). Memetics is an approach to cultural evolution originally proposed by evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins (1976). Dawkins argues that cultures may have their own evolutionary mechanisms, independent of biological evolution, that rely on basic gene-like reproductive units, which he calls "memes." A meme is the basic unit of meaningful culture and the basic unit of cultural heritage. Memes are about ideas. The religious concept of heaven, the Newtonian concept of gravity, the idea of jokes, the idea of the semicolon, the idea of handshakes, are all memes, or meme complexes. Memes can replicate and are subject to a Darwinian process of blind mutation and selection. They compete with each other in an environment of different ideas and human biological needs that determine whether they will be selected for survival in the host or replicated by other hosts and spread throughout the population. Importantly, memetists argue that the underlying mechanisms of meme selection are unconscious, involving forces beyond the control of individual agents. Thus, the analogy between biological and cultural evolution runs across the board: all six principles of biological evolution outlined in Section 2 are assumed to also apply in one form or another to cultural evolution. However, there is controversy as to whether the distinction between genotype and phenotype applies to memetics. Dawkins argues that this distinction does not apply in memetics, because selective pressure acts directly on memes. Memes are like genes with phenotypic properties up their sleeves. According to this point of view, memetic evolution is Lamarckian insofar as it supports the heritability of acquired traits (new memes). Others argue that distinctions between genotype and phenotype are viable for memes. If memes are thoughts in the mind, then their phenotypic expression can be the realization or manifestation of that thought. This phenotypic expression can be an artifact or a behavior. For example, one's idea of a cake recipe is a set of memes, and the cake baked according to that recipe is a memetic phenotype. Likewise, the idea of remembering a song can be a collection of memes, and the performance of a song is its phenotype. From this point of view, selective

P Bray

(Video) Free Download any paid book ! Search by ISBN No| 🗒️Free books 2019|read books online free

Stress does not act directly on memes, but indirectly on their phenotype expression.In this discussion, Unger is mostly followed by Dawkins' view that Memi has both genotype and phenotype.He also believes that the Memi of the brain structure, that is, the thoughts in the brain.According to Unger, the theory of technological change should focus on memes and artifacts.He, like Basalla, believes that artifacts evolve.However, he claims that they develop through interaction with psycho -powerfacts or memory.Unger postulates the coevolution process between mem and artifacts.He claims that this coevolution process includes "two genetic lines that work together to feed each other in a positive way" and is responsible for "incredible dynamics of cultural changes in modern western societies" (2002, p. 277 pages).Aanger emphasizes that artifacts do not play any role in the coevolution of memetic artifacts.Artifacts sometimes function as phenotypes, which are at the center of the selection pressure.But they can also serve as bearers or interactors of mema, as signals templates, and even as replicators, as in computer viruses and nanotechnologies (self -replying copies of nanotechnology).Among these different roles of artifacts, different relationships with memory are established.However, in all cases there is coevolution: Memi leads to artifacts, and artifacts can be associated with memory and change or create new ones.Both Memi and artifacts are subject to their own pressures of selection.Unger summarized his technological change theory as follows: "New types of artifacts are formed by random mutations of invention or shape. This begins a new evolutionary vine. Innovations, on the other hand, are modification of these inventions by recombining parts ...."combinant chemistry") between artifact lines can quickly generate complexity. Therefore, over time, the lineage of artifacts may show cumulative selection (changes over the vine) and show adaptable design, its ability to change the environment becomes increasing.Mental evolution of knowledge can call Darvinism. ”(2002, 299). According to Anger, the production of artifacts is first simulated in the head, where different types of artifacts "try" to gain competitive advantage. This process of psychological attempts and errors can be repeated at the level of research and development within the company before returningto the market. This is, therefore, the inter -war two Darwinist processes, "the decline and modification of the amount of knowledge available to society regarding the production of certain artifacts, and the specific modification of the artifacts themselves - which requires modeling for complete understanding." (2002, 299-300).Aanger noticed that the precise model of interaction between mem and artifacts was not yet developed. Angers the theory contains most of the analogies with the principles of biological evolution, so he believes that technological changes are very similar to biological evolution. Augar applies the principles of variation, inheritance and differential adjustments to memes and artifactswho are very similar to biology. He claims that the relationship between mema and artifacts is sometimes similar to the relations of the genotype-fenotype, but believes that there may also be different relationships between mema and artifacts.When this relationship occurs, the principles of genetic reproduction seems to apply.Unger also takes over the invention of new mema and artifacts

As a technical design of the evolutionary procedure

They can be described as mutations, and the recombination process also happens when the mema is combined to produce new artifacts.Contrary to the theories of Basalle and Mokyra, Aanger adheres to the principle of blindness: he claims that the basic processes of variations and selections in memes and artifacts are not properly understood as conscious and purposeful, although conscious decisions and goals play the role in them.This is a really fundamental principle of memetics: the evolution of mema or the idea should not be interpreted as a result of conscious cognitive processes and the actions of human mediation, but before the process of human blind mutation and selection of mema.It acts as a passive host for this process.Memetics thus pushes Darwinism away from Darwinism: not even a wristwatch that was discovered by William Paley is not the result of conscious design, but blind variations and selections.Memetists believe that, like biological organisms, artifacts are the result of the evolutionary process of the natural choice.

Design and technological development

According to these three theories of technological evolution, what is the essence of engineering design? I will start with the question of the theory of Basall and Mokyr. They differ from Aunger's theory. They interpret technical changes as a conscious deliberate and vision that depends on human actors. Therefore, according to them, the process of evolution is not necessarily blind. The design of technology is part of the evolutionary process, and the designer is far away. Their view seems to conflict with the blind principle of blindness in section 2. But as I now want to show, even for biological evolution, this form of form is too powerful, so must change. The evolutionary process of mutation and selection sometimes involves vision and conscious choices. Natural selection is usually compared to artificial choices. Artificial selection is the choice of human beings to move plant species. The latter creates a new race within a species, and can even produce a species. Dogs are a domesticated species after thousands of years of artificial selection, creating hundreds of different varieties. Obviously, these breeds are the result of a process of mutation and selection, and are similar to natural selection in all respects. Beyond these, they include human vision and selection and variation and the process of "nature". However, the evolution of dogs depends on the foresight of human beings. Is this really different from normal natural evolution? If you look closely, you will find that vision and selection usually play an important role in natural selection, because natural choices usually depend on the future-oriented behavior of animals and humans. Animals choose their mates, predators how would choose their prey, the immediate environment of their lives and the things and animals they interact with, while their parents decide to feed them or protect them. These options are generally

P Bray

Lead with expectations for the future. They are the main factors in the process of selection, change and reproduction that take place through natural selection. There is still a big difference between artificial and natural selection: artificial selection is selection by selection. The prediction of natural selection does not focus on offspring traits in the same way as the explicit goal of breeding or reproducing certain species with predefined traits (phenotypic traits). Rabbit breeders can successfully breed rabbits with white bodies, black heads, and red eyes, but two rabbits do not seem to mate in the wild because they struggle to produce offspring with certain phenotypic traits. However, there is no reason why the principles used in reports on artificial selection and natural selection cannot be described using the same terms. In both cases, choices involve intelligence-oriented future events and predictions. Rabbit breeders can phenotype or genotype new generations of rabbits without complete control, so prediction is only part of the explanation for why breeding rabbits look the way they do. The Designer or Maker has the same relationship to the techno artifact as the Breeder of the animal it breeds. Designers try to create certain artifacts with desired properties, but do not have complete control over the outcome. Specific artifacts are a compromise between ideals. In the designer and the unforeseen events of the physical and social world and the designer's work. The designer does not have complete control over the outcome of his design activities, he has less control over the success of the artifacts ever released into the environment, i.e. into the market and the world of users. Artifacts leave the factory, and the intent and choice of sellers, users, executives, and others, along with random events, determine whether they succeed as a brand (or genre) and spread. Designers are the most important means of mutation in the evolutionary process of change and selection. It produced new types of artefacts, after which the region's various selection constraints determined their success. The production of these changes plays an important role, far more than the production of new variants, in biological evolution. On the other hand, the future intelligence of the designer often plays an important role in the subsequent selection. Discovered the hard way, it is often difficult to predict or determine which products will be successful in the market.

1 It may happen that people consciously or unconsciously choose a mate to produce offspring with certain phenotypic traits, but this does not seem to be an important factor in mate choice. Animals if possible.

Technical design as an evolutionary process

However, product designers can try to control the process of choosing a managing environment in which their products work..use a product.The most important ways in which the designer can control the environment include the much -needed car manual and direct communication with suppliers or users.Designers can thus project their future intelligence outside of artifacts to what is happening in selected circumstances.He acts as a parent who prescribes where he will go, the person he will socialize with and remove those risks and dangers from the environment so that his child has the best chance of success.I came to the conclusion that in "Basalla and Mokyr" methods, the design can be explained as a process of creating variants in the evolutionary process of change and selection.Designers use intelligence aimed at the future when they create new variants, but artifacts (artifacts) are not fully determined by the vision of designers, but because of their daily limitations, including the work of designers.Designers and others can also use intelligence aimed at the future to influence the selection process.But effort is ultimately part of the evolutionary process that is beyond control of the other side.On the other hand, none of Aanger's memory theories about technological changes involves the future intelligence, since he also considers even a design or innovation, random mutation of shapes.This is a consequence of the fundamental vision of the cognition that the cognitive process itself changes and that the process of choosing mema is the one over which people do not have real control because these are subconscious processes driven by Memetic laws."Meme -fontains" are: with artists and scientists, people who are simply good at creating new memes or involving existing ones.New mes -generated design is technological artifacts.Let me finally ask the issue of evaluation: what perspectives: What perspective is true about design and technological innovation?This is the radical Aunger's approach, what are designers of pure pawns in the evolutionary process?Is this a traditional, non -revolutionary approach, whose design is the result of the creativity and ingenuity of designers?Basalla or Mokyr's approach, something between?I would like to suggest that there may be more than one valid conceptual frame for design and innovation analysis.Emphasizing the intention of designer is the most useful if the intention is to explain the presence of certain features or features in the artifact.For example, it could be explained that the handle of the pan was curved because the designer wanted the pan to be easily kept.This type of explanation is called a deliberate explanation because it explains that a matter or event is a product of human intent.If one wants to explain the goals of the technological change, there are too many limitations in work except the intention of designers or innovators, so it must be resorted to causal (or structural or functional) explanations, so that citing what is being done to the work of structural features or mechanisms (Little, 1991).Claims of evolution theorists

P. Brey

Technology is such a mechanism that develops in a broader sense and should inherit some vocabulary and laws of evolutionary biology. In Basalla and Mokyr's approach, the resulting evolutionary explanations are partly supported by intentional explanations: these are macroanalyses, which can be linked to microanalyses, involving individuals (such as designers and users) who have intentions, desires and beliefs and act on them . In Aunger's approach, however, microlevel analysis does not involve intentional agents, but rather agents in which the mind itself is subject to blind mutation and selection. In other words, Basalla and Mokyr still view the mind as an intentional black box (Haugeland, 1981), an entity that has intentions and creates ideas and requires no further explanation, while Aunger, rightly or wrongly, reduces the mind to non-intentionality. . , a future-proof process of memetic mutation and selection.

in conclusion

In this chapter, I began to study whether the evolution of engineered products is completely different from the evolution of biological species, and whether designed products are best explained as the result of a design purpose rather than the process of biological evolution. I reviewed technical evolution by George Basall, Joel Mokyr, and Robert Auunger and tested whether in line with true evolution. The conclusions I have come to are that based on Basall, technological innovation and change are similar to biological evolution, and they are very similar to Mokyr and Aunger's recording. Although I have not proven the effectiveness of the method of technological evolution, I hope that readers will believe that these methods are worthy of serious treatment. The method of technological evolution gives us a designer's point of view. Designer intentions and beliefs and others can at best explain only part of the process of technological innovation and change. They have such a concept that the designer is the initiator of a new variant and then selects in society. The designer is a means of mutation and reorganization in the production of new products. They are part of this the production process, but are not fully controlled. The success of the variants generated during the next selection or their adaptability can be predicted or controlled by the designer only in a very limited range. This point of design and innovation is worth further development, because it can help us understand the role of the designer in technological innovation and conditions of technological innovation.

References Andersen, E., ed., 1994, Evolutionary Economics: Post-Schumpeterian Contributions, Pinter Publishers, Londen. Aunger, R., 2002, The Electric Meme, Free Press, New York.

As a technical design of the evolutionary process

Aunger, R., Ur., 2000, Dar culture. Like scientific status, Oxford University Press, G., 1988, Technology Evolution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Bijker, W., Pinch, T. and Hughes, T., Edit, 1987, Social construction of the Technical System: New direction of sociology and technology, mit Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts.Blackmore, S., 1999, Meme Machine, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Callebaut, W. IPinxten, R., Evolutionary Epistemology: Program Multiparadigm, Reidel, Dordrecht.Cziko, G., 1995., No Miracles: Generally choose theory and other Darwin Revolution, Mit Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Darwin, C., 1859, about the origin of the species using the selection of nature, Merry, London Geni, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Doukins, R., 1986, Blind cousin, Norton, New York.Dembsky, W. (.2005, Evolutionary Foundation of Economics, Cambridge University Press, K. and Hooker, C., Ur., 1989, questions in evolutionary epistemology, Suny Press, Albany, NY.HAUGLAND, J., 1981, ESSENCY AND SAINILITYCognitive, in: Mind Design, Editor J. Haugland, Mit Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 243-281.Little, D., 1991, Social Explanation Sorts, Westview Press, Boulder, Co.Mokyr, J., 1996, Evolution and technological changes: New metaphors in economic history, in: Technology Chang, R. Fox, Edit, Harwo, Harwo from Publishers, London.Mokyr, J., 1998, induced technological innovation and history of disease: Method of evolution, j.Evol.ekonomija.8: 119-137.Mokyr, J., 1999, invention and rebellion: Why did innovation occur? The method of evolution contains: ethnic minorities and economic growth, e.g.Brezis and P. Temin, Editor, Elsevier Publishers, Amsterdam, Str.179-203.Mokyr, J., 2000a, innovation and choice in technical evolutionary models: some problems with the definition, in: technological innovation, as a process of evolution, editor J. Ziman, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Mokyr, J., 2000B,Knowledge, technology and economic growth during the industrial revolution, in: productivity, technology and economic growth, B. Van Ark, S. Kuipers, and G. Cooper editors, Kluwer / Springer, Hague.Paley, W., 1802, Natural Theology: OrEvidence of God's existence and attributes, collected from natural phantom, J. Faulter, London.Ziman, J., ed., 2000, technological innovation, as a process of developing, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Determining Ethical Issues in Engineering Design by Anke Van Gorp and Ibo Van de Poel

Abstract Engineers make decisions about ethical issues such as safety and sustainability during the design process. We believe that how engineers approach such ethical issues depends on the type of design process they are performing. Vincenti distinguished between normal and radical design. In the normal design process, the working principle and normal configuration are given, in the aggressive design process they are not. We present four case studies of real design processes: two normal design processes and two aggressive design processes. We show that engineers use so-called regulatory frameworks to make ethical decisions during the normal design process. The regulatory framework includes legislation and technical standards and their interpretation by certification organizations. These regulatory frameworks ensure the implementation of ethical standards. The regulatory framework also defines some minimum safety and durability requirements that products must meet. These frameworks are missing or difficult to apply during an aggressive design process. Therefore, ethical trust in engineers in radical design cannot be based on a regulatory framework; radical design requires another basis for building that trust.

present

Technical design is fraught with the need to make ethically relevant choices. For example, let's say you are designing a printer/copier. During the design process, it is possible to choose whether the printer/copier can print bi-directionally. After selecting Duplex and Copy, additional selections must be made for standard properties. If double-sided printing is a standard option, the user must explicitly select single-sided printing. This standard option can save a lot of paper compared to a printer/copier that can only print on one side. I A. Van Gorp Impact of saving paper on the environment, TNO Quality of life I. Van de Poel, Tu Delft

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

A. van Gorp 和 I. van de Poel

Although the number of two -sided printings from one printer/copyable machine is limited, the impact on the total number of printers/copyrious devices used around the world is significant.Because the paper is produced from wood, a decrease in paper consumption will also reduce the amount of wood used.Paper production, wood transport and paper transportation require energy.The amount of energy used in the process will also be reduced, and the total reduction in resources will be significantly globally.This example shows that decisions made during the product design phase that seem trivial at that stage can have a significant environmental impact.This environmental impact is ethically relevant because environmental protection and sustainability are moral issues.Examination of sustainability questions such as: What is our responsibility to future generations?Does the ecosystem have an intrinsic value?must answer.When engineers make decisions on sustainability during the design process, they imply the attitude about these issues.For example, if you choose a one -sided option for your printer/copyra, future generations can face more environmental problems due to the use of more (fossil) energy and trees.When it comes to moral values, we call certain questions ethical issues.The basic ethical values we focus on in this article are security and sustainability.As for the printer/copyable machines, the ethical value of sustainability clearly dictates the choice of equipment where a two -sided printing is a standard option.However, ethical values are often at a conflict during the design: for example, the safest option may not be the most grunt (see Van de Poel, 2001; Van Gork and Van de Poel, 2001).In such cases, a compromise must be made between different moral values.How to make such compromises in an acceptable way is an ethical question in itself.In this paper, we claim that there are important differences in the way engineers approach ethical issues during normal and radical design processes.1 more precisely, our claim is that engineers use regulatory frames to decide ethical issues in normal designs, while in radical designs the design process for such frames is absent or inappropriate.In order to substantiate this claim, we present four studies of the design case of the design process: two normal and two aggressive ones.There are two normal design processes, one is the design of pipelines and equipment for the chemical industry, and the other is the design of the bridge.These were two radical design processes, one for a durable light vehicle design and the other for a lightweight sand trailer design.This cases was conducted by one of the authors (Van Gork, 2005).The methods used to collect data included observing the design team, reading project documentation and interviewing engineers.In the next section, we present Vincenti's difference between normal and aggressive design and introduce the concept of a regulatory frame.Section III gives descriptions of four case studies.We end up with discussions and conclusions, including ethical implications of results.1

For similar claims, see Van de Poel and Van Gorp (2006). The claim we have presented here is more specific and we propose some new cases.

Determination of ethical questions in engineering design

2 2.1

Type of design and regulatory framework Type of design: conventional design and radical design

Vincenti (1990; 1992) uses two dimensions to characterize the design process: the design level and the type of design.Vincenti (1990), unlike radical design. "The principle of work" is a term introduced by Polanyi (1962).For example, incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent lights have different principles of work. In incandescent bulbs, Volfframa conducts electricity. It will heat the wire: the electrons are excited and radiant when they fall.In fluorescent lamps a large voltage transmits gas between two electrodes for productionplasma.electrons of live atoms are stimulated from ultraviolet rays. Fluorescent powder converts ultraviolet rays into visible light that is excited electrons and emits light in a visible light range..Vincenti describes a normal configuration as: "... the general shape and appearance of a generally agreed general shape and seem can best reflect the principle of work."(1990, 209). We do the general shape and schedule as the type of materials used. Vincents do not determine the material, but the materials used in the design are very important for the form of parts and products., usually requires new types of knowledge to produce products and new methods for testing. In comparison with normal design, the use of new knowledge and methods is typical of radical design. The definition of Vincenti, in normal design, the principle of work and normal configurations are the same as the previous onedesign.in radical design, work principle and/or normal configuration are unknown or decided not to use the conventional principle of work and/or normal configuration.

2.2

Regulatory framework

For most products, there is a set of regulatory systems and formal rules that can be used to guide design decisions, including decisions on moral issues such as safety and sustainability. Van Gorp (2005) introduced standards and regulatory regulatory frameworks suitable for one type of technology. and a system of rules

A. van Gorp 和 I. van de Poel

Products with certain functions. The regulatory framework includes the rules of all relevant regulations, national and international legislation, technical standards and inspections and products for certification. 2 The regulatory framework is social sanctions, such as (same as above) ethnic parliament, such as the European Parliament or organization approval standards. In addition to technical and legislation, the interpretation of legislation and technical standards is also part of the regulatory framework. For example, the control and certification organization and engineering companies can explain standards and legislation during engineers who organize the latest design practice for engineers. Informal rules and certain company rules are not part of the regulatory framework. The EU has different EU.3 directives, including for example the mechanical directive 98/37/EC is related to all machinery with activity components. Another important guide is the directive for low voltage equipment 73/32 /EC, which is connected to all equipment, and its voltage is between 50 and 1000 DC and 75 and 1500 AC. EU guidelines must be converted into national laws within the European Union. Therefore, it can be expected that all EU countries will have national laws implementing EU directives. All these standards include technical standards such as the EU code. 4 If these standards or national standards follow the EU code during the design process, they follow the EU code and assume that the instructions should be met. The European Commission for Standardization (CEN) responsible is for the formulation of standards. CEN has a committee for the formulation of thematic standards of food, consumer products, buildings, buildings, transport and packaging (www.cenorm.be).5

2 In Van de Poel and Van Gorp (2006) we use the concept of "normative framework" introduced by Grunwald (2000; 2001). A normative framework differs from a normative framework in that the normative framework must comply with certain normative standards. 3 The main goal of EU standardization is to guarantee a free market and technical barriers to trade within the EU (European Commission, 1999). In addition to supporting the purpose of the free market, standardization promotes security, enables the interoperability of products, systems and services and promotes common technical understanding" (www.cenorm.be). 4 In the United States, usually in code: a terminological distinction is made between EU codes and standards: Codes are legal requirements of government agencies to protect safety, health and other relevant values; standards are not binding; they are generally considered recommendations (Hunter, 1997). EU codes have no legal enforcement. If where an EU code applies, it is assumed that the design conforms to the relevant guidelines. Therefore, according to the American terminology above, EU regulations are technical standards.5 A full description of the case can be found in van Gorp (2005).

Determination of ethical issues in engineering design

3 3.1

PIPES AND EQUIPMENT

The studied process of designing pipelines and pressure vessels in a chemical plant is a case of normal design: the principle of operation and the normal configuration are known and used. After disasters such as Bhopal, Seveso and recently a Chinese river heavily polluted by benzene chemical plants, it is not difficult to support the view that the safety of chemical plants is a moral issue. In the case study, safety decisions made by engineers during the design process included decisions about safety valves, load patterns, required material properties, and safety distances to pressure vessels. Engineers use the existing regulatory framework to help them make safety decisions and believe that designing in accordance with the regulatory framework will result in a safe installation. The regulatory framework for pipelines and pressure vessels used in the Netherlands is based on the European Pressure Equipment Directive (PED) (European Directive 97/23/EC). Each EU country has designated notified bodies called notified bodies to verify compliance of new designs and renovations with PED regulations. Approved designs have the CE mark. Other regulations that are part of the regulatory framework are environmental protection regulations and regulations related to noise and unpleasant odors. Such regulations are often used to regulate the outcome of the design process: installations must operate within permissible noise and emission levels. Relevant laws and regulations refer to standards and are therefore part of the regulatory framework. Organizations that develop standards vary from country to country. Standards may be developed by professional organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), industry, and others. , such as the Netherlands, or government agency regulations, such as British Standards. Standards are usually written rules of good design practice which, when used correctly, should protect the health and safety of individuals and protect the environment. Standards are usually prescribed; they use specific hardware and computing. In some countries, laws require the application of certain standards. In many states in the United States, ASME standards are required by law for pressure vessels and piping. In the EU, guidelines from EU standards are used in the process of designing pipelines and pressure vessels, assuming that the design complies with PED. Despite the existence of a comprehensive regulatory framework for piping and pressure vessels, some elements remain crucial for design engineers and their customers. Since there are multiple safety standards for piping and pressure vessels, design engineers and their customers must select the applicable standard. Furthermore, the regulatory framework does not cover all safety decisions that must be made in the early stages of design

A. van Gorp 和 I. van de Poel

procedure. In the absence of a mandate to make such choices, safety becomes the responsibility of the design engineer and their client. For example, the manufacturer stated in the case study that although the PED requires a risk analysis, the accident and load scenarios are not defined in the European standards and regulations for pipelines and pressure vessels. In such cases, according to the engineers, they usually refer to the company's load and accident scenario standards, or if these are not available, discuss the problem with the customer or seek advice from a national notified body.

3.2

use

Our second case is the architectural conceptual project of the arched bridge over the Amsterdam-Rhine channel in Amsterdam.This case is a case of normal design because the principle of operation and the normal configuration of the arched bridge is known and used to design that bridge.Engineers meet with various ethical issues on the safety and sustainability of bridges.The demolition of bridges kills and injures, so decisions that affect the odds that the bridge is failed morally relevant.Furthermore, the construction sector is prone to accidents that kill or seriously injure people at construction sites, and the Netherlands is no exception.During the design of the bridge, decisions were made that influenced the safety of the construction sites and the risks that employees faced during construction.The safety of the bridge includes various aspects: safety during use, safety during construction and safety of ships passing under the bridge.6 Most security decisions are made during the use of the bridge according to the regulatory frame based on the construction of the bridge.Implementation of the Dutch construction law.The construction law is detailed and contains regulations such as strength budget.This construction code refers to standards such as those for Dutch concrete and steel bridges (Nen 6723, 1995 and Nen 6788, 1995).Although the regulatory frame for bridges covers most decisions that must be made regarding the safety of the bridge and the durability of the building, it does not cover everything.An example of an uncovered security problem is abuse.In the case of Amsterdam bridges, it can climb the bridge bows because the arches are not very steep.Designers have to decide whether something will be done so that people do not climb and walk on the bows of the bridge.The regulatory framework for the safety of the bridge construction is based on two European guidelines: 89/391/EC (working conditions) and 92/57/EC (security and health at construction sites).European guidelines have been installed

We will not focus on the disturbance of ships on the canal, as described in detail in Van Gork (2005).

Determination of ethical issues in engineering design

Dutch legislation in the working conditions of the February 2004 edition. The decree stipulates that a safety and health plan must be developed for the construction of a bridge, and design engineers, contractors and customers are responsible for all parts of safety and health. Health plan. During the design phase, coordinators for design health and safety, they must identify and assess all risks. There are more significant regulations for working conditions, but the design team does not know the specific content of these regulations. They believe that compliance with these strict regulations is the responsibility of the contractor, because the contractor is the employer on the site. In fact, compliance with the rules is the responsibility of employers and employees in working conditions. Therefore, there is a regulatory framework for working conditions, but this regulatory framework is not used during the design process, because the designer did not consider the working conditions that were considered during the construction period to be his responsibility. The engineer is listed only a list of risks during the construction period.

3.3

an easy vehicle

A very light, sustainable city car for the whole family, the Dutchevo was designed in Tu Delft. The weight of an empty car is set to a maximum of 400 kg. Currently, European family cars usually weigh around 1200 kg; even the smart for two people has an empty weight of 720 kg. The design call to produce a sustainable car with an empty weight of less than 400 kg led to a radical design process. I'm not sure if you can use the normal car configuration; this had to be decided during the design process. In the end, the standard engine was chosen, but the floor structure, sides and doors were very different from the floor of a normal car. Ethical questions about safety and sustainability concern design engineers. First, a light car will always accelerate faster when a heavier car crashes, so the car is less safe for passengers than a heavier car. Second, it is impossible to integrate all the usual active and passive safety systems into a 400 kg car. Regarding car safety, EuronCap7 conducts tests that are an important part of the regulatory framework for cars in the European Union. But it's impossible to design a light car and try to do well in the EuronCap crash test. After analyzing these crash tests, the design team decided that these crash tests would lead to tough vehicles and make people feel safe in cars. A car that scores well in the EuronCap test does not necessarily protect people well in various accidents, such as a collision with a tree or a light pole. That's why the design team refused EurOncap's crash tests. Third, the design team defined the sustainability of Brundtland as part of their perception of sustainability

Eurocap is a cooperative of various European consumer and government organizations.

A. van Gorp 和 I. van de Poel

Development is "to meet the current development of current demand, not the ability of future generations to meet their needs" (WCED, 1987, 43). However, it is unclear whether a sustainable car can be considered according to the definition. Burendland's definition is usually explained as only basic needs. The question is whether personal transportation is the basic needs of people.Fourth, sustainability is mainly by reducing the energy of the light vehicle, but other operations can be used, but other operations can be defended. For example, sustainable cars are cars that can be recycled. Fifth, the design team also hopes that cars will become "emotional sustainability". This means that people should get more pleasure from cars, not just the ability to use them from A to B. The team hopes to encourage the relationship between car and owner to promote long-term ownership, rather than discarding their cars in a few years. They hope that the car is interesting. The sustainable part, because if people really like to drive cars, they can use cars for the distance that usually walks or circulates. This will increase energy consumption, regardless of how the light of the car is the team. These standards are formulated in to the design process. An example of internal design standards is that when choosing easier options among different options, the easier option must be chosen. Different standards for internal design teams are that the car driver will feel that these internal design team standards are based on the training of engineers in the design team. Their previous design experience 8 and their training for personal experience.According to the personal experience of the design team members, they have more risks in modern cars than in Citroen 2Cheveux.

3.4

trailer

The second case of radical design includes a preliminary design and study of the feasibility of light composite trailers with a new loading and unloading system. This is the main design process.Inclusion of a new loading and unloading system and using composite materials to meet the needs of the light trailer, the normal function of work is changed. The lives of the trailer is security. In this case, the manufacturer uses a secure trailer as constructive andReliable trailer: This is a trailer that will not fail during use.The image of the "ordinary" trailer you can use the regulatory box, which includes the rules on maximum limit

8 Most of the design team members are undergraduates, masters and masters with very limited design experience. The project leader was an experienced automotive designer, and two other, more experienced designers worked on the project.

Determination of ethical issues in engineering design

Axles, maximum height, pneumatic spring, turning circle and taxing safety guards that prevent cyclists and pedestrians from falling under the wheels of the truck. Trucks must be certified to be allowed to drive on Dutch roads if they are allowed to meet certain safety standards before they are allowed. The engineer used only two requirements of this frame for conditioning, the maximum allowable weight and the maximum allowable height specified in the frame. They decided not to familiarize themselves with the rest of the framework because they did not consider it relevant to their design task, which was to design a reliable lightweight trailer using composite materials. Furthermore, the designers realized that references to material properties were included in all parts of the conditioning frame and took this into account. The product will be made of metal. Other security decisions are based on internal design team criteria. These criteria are based on the type and level of education of the engineers, with more than half having a master's degree in aerospace technology and experience as engineers and designers in engineering firms. Within engineering firms, there is much experience with lightweight design and the use of fiber-reinforced plastic composites. This experience led to the design of the company's standard security. An internal criterion for good lightweight design is, for example, that material should only be added where it supports taxes. Another example is that when designing a joint, a new configuration must be made, which is insufficient to replicate the configuration used for non-composite materials. Personal experience did not play a big role in this design process. By treating safety as structural reliability, engineers ignore road safety. They feel responsible only for designing reliable structures. No one in the company has experience with road safety measures, so there are no internal company standards for road safety. It is not Temine's important ethical question about towing in relation to road safety. In the event of an accident, people could be killed by trucks and trailers, such as cyclists or pedestrians, and if the truck driver cannot see them while leaning, engineers must determine the heavy and rigid elements of the trailer. This decision affects road safety because it determines what will affect other road users during a crash (van der Burg and van Gorp, 2005).

Discussion and conclusion

The case studies show that there are major differences between how ethical issues are addressed in normal and radical designs. In the case of normal design, ethically relevant choices are made in the light of existing regulatory frameworks, resulting from regulations and standards. The operationalization of ethically relevant standards is defined as part of these regulatory frameworks. These frames are also used for

A. van Gorp 和 I. van de Poel

Define some minimum safety and durability requirements that the product must meet. In radical design, light cars and trailers of light complex materials, decision-making on ethical issues is mainly based on internal design standards. You can make three further opinions. First of all, in normal design, the regulatory framework does not cover all ethical issues. Engineers or customers have to make some morally related decisions outside the current framework, for example, which accident scenarios should be considered when designing pipelines and pressures. Second, the regulatory framework is sometimes considered to have nothing to do with design process, because design engineers believe that given that these frames exceeded their specific duties as design engineers. In the shell bridge (normal design) the engineers did not consider the working conditions frame. For the trailer (radical design) the engineer considered only a part trailer frame. Third, on radical design: Although the standards of interior design teams play a leading role in moral decision-making in the radical design process, the regulatory framework still plays a role, as sustainability contained in the safety and regulatory framework is still Since it is still viable. It is considered very important. 9 These cases show several reasons for the supervision framework not being applied or fully applied to radical design. One of the reasons is that the framework cannot be applied, because the applications sometimes cause meaningless proposals in the technical. In the case studies , the inappropriate part of the existing framework is due to the use of new materials. If different materials are used, some concepts in the regulatory framework will lose their applicability. For example, when the design is made of average metal made of complex materials, certain material attributes cannot be determined on the way specified in the relevant framework. For composite materials, the stress of the different components that make up the composite material will vary. The term "stress in materials" specified in the current regulatory framework loses its meaning, because different parts of the composite materials will withstand different stress, and meaningless is to talk about "stress in the material". As a result, all guidelines and calculation rules related to stress are not suitable for products made of composite materials. We previously defined the regulatory framework as a set of rules and standards for technical products suitable for implementing the same functions. However , as complex examples show, some rules and standards of the regulatory framework are specific to certain materials. Some rules may also be specific in certain principles of hardware configuration or operation. On the contrary, other rules or standards, such as the consideration of safety factors, are very common, so that they are still applicable to products made of different materials, or

Note that when it comes to trailers, engineers think safety is important, but they define safety as very narrow structural reliability.

Determination of ethical issues in engineering design

There is another common configuration or operating principle. So while one part of the tuning framework is often not suitable for radical designs, other parts may still be suitable and relevant. Another reason for not using the existing regulatory framework, especially in light vehicles in the case of aggressive designs, is that engineers rejected parts of the framework for ethical reasons, especially the EuronCap crash test. These crash tests are considered morally inadequate because they emphasize the safety of the people in the car at the expense of the car's sustainability and fuel consumption. Note that the causal arrows may be reversed in these cases. Considering the conditioning frame early in the design process may lead the designer to discard part of the section and develop a more radical design. The differences between addressing ethical issues in normal and radical design may vary beyond the four case studies presented here. There is a regulatory framework for most products. The use of such frameworks may be required by law or, if not, compliance with the frameworks will generally be construed as compliance with legal requirements. 10 The status of such legal or semi-legal regulatory frameworks is clearly a strong incentive to use such frameworks to make ethically relevant design choices. However, tuning boxes with a basic design are often partially unusable. In our case study, we discovered a special reason: the use of different types of materials. It is expected that projects based on new operating principles or new normal configurations, or both, will often result in parts of the existing regulatory framework no longer being applicable. Often, in the case of aggressive designs, the overall goal of regulating the framework (eg security) still makes sense. However, special operations or regulations that promote safety often become impractical or contradictory. For example, designing vehicles for autonomous operation will lead to inconsistencies and oddities using existing traffic regulation frameworks. In the current road safety regulatory framework, the vehicle always belongs to the driver, but the purpose of designing an automated guided vehicle is to design a vehicle that can be driven safely without a driver. 11 The purpose of the road safety regulatory framework is safe vehicles and safe traffic flow, and that higher goal is still relevant to the design of automated guided vehicles. Therefore, the basic ideas behind the regulatory framework are still important, but most legislation and standards within traffic control will not apply in the case of autonomous vehicles. If a design team or client sharing a regulatory framework refuses to reject it because they believe the regulatory framework would lead to an ethically unacceptable product, this may lead to a reconsideration of the normal configuration and operating principles.

The latter has the potential to comply with the law in a different way than following the regulatory framework. 11 Since Dutch legislation requires vehicles in public spaces to have a driver, specific social regulations must be observed for testing with automated guided vehicles.

A. van Gorp 和 I. van de Poel

Some of the more detailed and normative parts of the regulatory framework have been developed taking into account certain principles of work and normal configuration.If the design team believes that these parts would lead to an ethically unacceptable product, they will reconsider the normal configuration and principles of the trunk of a light car.Discard parts of the regulatory frame could lead to an aggressive design process.From the above, it can be concluded that even if the regulatory framework was available to direct parts of the main design process, it would be rejected or not fully applicable.This means that regulatory frames cannot often be used, or only in part, to be used for radical design to help the design engineers in decision-making.In these cases, engineers often call more on the internal standards of the Designer Team.If such standards do not exist, they will develop during the design process.The members of the design team will use their training areas, design experience and personal experience for the development of such internal design teams.We would like to conclude our contribution by a brief overview of the moral relevance of our findings.Some engineers believe that technology is morally neutral and that moral decisions are not made during the design process.We presented plenty of (empirical) evidence that refutes this claim.However, the difference between normal and aggressive design is associated with the way they ethical aspects consider in the design.In normal designs, ethical considerations are installed in the regulatory framework for creating ethically relevant compromises.Such ethical considerations are introduced during the development and reformulation of such regulatory frameworks at the level of the technical community and society.Therefore, even if individual design engineers are not aware of ethical issues in their design process, or not to consider ethical considerations, these factors will enter the design process through existing regulatory frameworks.Radical design is missing this mechanism.Therefore, whether and how to take into account ethical issues largely depend on the designers themselves.This increases the moral responsibility of the designer for the designers that design (see Van de Poel and Van Gorp, 2006).Sometimes it leads to ignoring relevant ethical issues, such as road safety in the case of towing truck.On the other hand, it can also lead to more attention dedicated to ethical issues than normal design.For example, in the trunk of a slight car design engineers, they decided for radical design, at least partially for ethical reasons.The difference between normal and radical design also has to do with the basics where the public may have morally reliable confidence in engineers and the resulting products (Van Gorp, 2005).Regulatory frames are usually socially approved;They are the result of a recognized and socially legitimate decision-making process.Such frameworks can therefore provide morally healthy trust in engineering and technical products.Aggressive design is missing the basis for trust.The question arises on what is based on the confidence of the rest of the society in engineers in this situation.We will not try to answer this question in detail, but we will mention one possibility: In this case, trust

Determination of ethical issues in engineering design

Perhaps engineers should consider different possible perspectives, thus going beyond the standards of their internal design teams (Van Gorp, 2005). Although radical designs may appear to be generally more morally questionable than normal designs, radical designs may be morally justified in situations where there are good reasons to doubt the moral adequacy of the current regulatory framework. Take, for example, the case of crash safety regulations; currently they focus mainly on people in vehicles, with little attention paid to the otherwise unprotected road - and road users such as cyclists and pedestrians (see Van Gorp, 2005). 12

Reference work conditions, 2004, SDU Uitgevers, The Hague. The European Commission, in 1999, based on new methods and global methods, Brussels implemented the guidelines.A. In 2000, Grunwald argued against the overestimation of the role of morality in technological development, Sci.terrifying.Et.6 (2): 181-196.Grunwald, A., 2001, "Ethics in Engineering and the Moral Responsibility of Engineers: A Research Perspective", Sci. terrifying. Et. 7 (3): 415-428. Jag, A., 1997, according to: ASM Handbook, G. E. Specifications and Standard Design. Dieter and S. Lampman Edit, p. 66-71. Polanyi, M., 1962, University of Chicago Press, personal knowledge from Chicago. Van de Poel, I.R., 2001, "An Investigation of Moral Issues in Technical Design", Sci.terrifying.Et.7 (3): 429 -446.I.R. Van de Poel and A.C. Van Gorp, 2006, the need for moral thinking in technical design; correlation between design and hierarchical design structure, Sci.Technical buzz.value.31 (3): 333-360.Van Detberg (S. grozno. Et.11 (2): 235-256. Van Gorp, A. and Van de Poel, I., 2001, Moral consideration of the engineering design process, IEEE Technol.soc. 3): 15–22. Van Gorp, A.C., 2005, “Moral Issues in Engineering Design”; Security and Sustainability, Simon Stevin's Technical Philosophy Series, Deett). Vincenti, WG, 1990, What Engineers Know and How They Know, John Hopkins University John Hopkins University John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London. Vincenti, W.G., 1992, "Technical knowledge, type of design and level of hierarchical structure: Thinking of the further engineer ..., in: Technological Development and Science in the Industrial Era, edited by P.Kroes and M. Bakker, Kluwer. Dordrecht, p. 17 -34 Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford.

We thank all the designers and companies that collaborated. We would also like to thank Pieter Vermaas for his valuable comments.

Ethics in design ethics design and ethics of technology artifacts Peter-Paul Verbeek

The summary of the central question in the philosophy of technology is the non-neutrality of technology.Most scientists in the field agree that technology actively helps to form culture and society, rather than neutrally filling human goals.How do I feel about this non-neutrality?Is neutrality of technology ethically serious?The engineering ethics is mostly focused on the moral decision -making and responsibility of the designers, and is too external to the moral significance of the technology itself.But analyzing the non-neutrality of technology, it seems to be a reasonable artefacts to attribute a certain morality.First, technology contributes significantly to the emergence of actions and decisions on how to act.Second, their role cannot be fully attributed to the intentions behind their design and use.This article examines the implications of these observations for ethical theory and ethics of design.

Expanding technological ethics

In our technology and culture, ethical issues related to technology are more and more appreciated. Decades ago, it was very abstract to the norms of technology. Criticizing "technology" and its impact on society and culture, such as the emergence of artificial intelligence."One-dimensional man" (Malgsey), "Volkswagen rule" (Jas Bas), "Mastering and controlling nature" (Heidegger). the reflection of standardization seeks a close connection with technology itself. Information technology and the ethics of biomedical engineering do not appear alone, and technical ethics also began to think about the design of technology. It can be used to make responsible decisions in the practice of technical development. This movement that is more contact with technology itself can be further. In its current form, engineering ethics and design ethics

P.-P.Welbeck, Winterthur University

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

P.-P。verbeek

It follows a somewhat externalist approach to technology. The focus is on the importance of taking personal responsibility ("Bellsluid") for preventing technological disaster, and on methods that can be used to assess and weigh the risks of new technologies. Favorite case studies include technologies that cause many problems that could be amenable to responsible action by engineers, such as the exploding space Challenger or the Ford Pinto that crashed at more than 25 mph A ruptured fuel tank in a ruptured fuel tank. Case studies like these methods are purely instrumental. In their functionality, they are close to technology: technologies are designed to do something, and if they don't do it well, they are poorly designed. Such case studies do not consider the impact of such technologies on our ethical decisions and actions and our quality of life. When technologies are used, they always form the context in which they perform their functions. They help shape human actions and perceptions and create new practices and ways of life. This phenomenon has been analyzed as "technologically mediated": technology mediates user experiences and practices (Latour, 1992; Ihde, 1990; Verbeek, 2005). This technological mediation has at least the moral implications of technological risk and disaster prevention. Technologies help shape the quality of our lives and, more importantly, they help shape our ethical actions and decisions. Mobile phones, for example, clearly contribute to the nature of our communication and interaction; technologies such as ultrasound for midwives play an active role in the decisions we make about the life of the unborn child. In order to adequately address the ethical aspects of technological development, technological ethics should extend its technological approach to technological mediation and its moral relevance, so that designers can be held responsible for the functional quality of designs and morally responsible for the quality of buildings. In this chapter, I first examine how this moral relevance of technological devices can be conceptualized. I will then determine how this can be incorporated into the ethics of technology.

Are cultural relics moral?

For a long time, the moral significance of technical products was in the secondary position of technical philosophy. Already in 1986, Langdon's winner wanted to know, "Is the political significance of an artificial product?" This question is based on his analysis of some overpass "racism" in New York. These overpasses are intentionally built very low. Only cars can pass. The bus cannot pass, to prevent black people from buying a car. From access to the beach (winner, 1986).Bruno Latour (1992) believes that artificial products are moral carriers because they continue to help people make various moral decisions. For example, he stated that the moral decision about how fast Kaishi is usually entrusted to the deceleration zone on the road, and the scenario "slowed down before you got there". Anyone who complains about moral corruption,

Design ethics

According to Latour, their eyes should be put to better use, since the objects around us are imbued with morality. 1 Much of our behavior and interpretation of the world is shaped by the technologies we use. Cell phones mediate the way we communicate with others, cars help us determine the acceptable distance from home to work, thermometers collectively shape our experiences of health and illness, and prenatal diagnostic technologies raise difficult questions about pregnancy and abortion. This mediation of technology is also linked to actions and decisions we often call "morality" ranging from what we consider morally acceptable driving speeds to decisions about unborn life. If morality is about the question of "how to act," and technology helps answer that question, then technology seems to make morality, or at least help us. Similar to the winner claiming that artifacts are political, the conclusion seems to show that artifacts are moral: technology plays an active role in moral action and decision-making. How do we understand this material morality? Does it actually mean an artifact? Can he be considered a moral agent? In ethical theory, at least intentionality and some degree of freedom are required to qualify as a moral agent. In order to be morally responsible for an act, the subject must have the intended way of acting in a certain act and the freedom to realize that intention. Both requirements seem problematic for artifacts, at least on the surface. After all, artifacts do not seem capable of forming intentions, nor do they have any form of autonomy. However, the claims of both for moral freedom of choice deserve further analysis.

2.1

Technical intention

At first glance, it seems absurd to talk about artifacts in terms of intentions.Further considering what we mean by "intent" in relation to the actual "intent to do something" enables the attribution of specific forms of intention to artifacts.In order to show this, it is important to distinguish between two aspects of "intention": first, the intention relates to the ability to form an intention, and second, this formation of intention can be observed as originally or spontaneously, literally "speaking".From "or origin" from an agent who has an intention.No aspect of intention would be so strange for the technical artefact if it were love at first sight.First, the "mediation method" of the technique described above allows the ability to attribute artifacts.This approach analyzes the intermediary role of technology in the relationship between people and reality.The fundamental idea is that technologies always create a relationship between users and its environment when using them.Technology allows us to

For another analysis of the moral correlates of technical products, see Borgmann (1995) and Achterhuis (1995).

P.-P。verbeek

Actions and experiences that were previously almost impossible also help shape our behavior and experiences. Technologies are not neutral tools or mediators, but active mediators that shape the relationship between people and reality. This mediation has two directions: pragmatic, relevant action and the other about interpretation. Latour's work provides many examples of the pragmatic dimension of technological mediation. In the case of Madeleine Akrich, he coined the term "script" to indicate that artefacts can prescribe certain actions, much like a script or play for a film prescribes what to do when (Latour, 1992; Akrich, 1992). For example, the speed threshold mentioned above embodies the "Vertrakee before you get to me" script. Everyday life is full of examples of technologies that help shape our actions. In Dutch supermarkets, shopping carts are equipped with coin-operated locks to encourage the user to return the cart instead of leaving it in the parking lot. Recently, wheel locks have been introduced to prevent wheel theft when the wheel is moved outside a certain area. Don Ihde's work deals with the hermeneutic dimension of technological mediation. IHDE analyzes the structure of relationships between humans and technological artifacts and examines how technology is shaped by these relationships, human perceptions and interpretations of reality (eg IHDE, 1990; 1998). A good example of this hermeneutic intention, which I have briefly studied elsewhere (see Verbeek, 2006), is the midwife's ultrasound. This technology is not only a functional means of making the unborn child visible in the womb. It actively helps shape the way the unborn child sees the human experience and thus informs the choices made by its intended parents. Due to the way in which ultrasound mediates the relationship between the fetus and the future parents, it is specific for both the fetus and the parent. Ultrasound provides many "translations" of the relationship between the intended parents and the fetus, through visual contact. First, ultrasound isolates the fetus from the woman's body. In doing so, it creates a new ontological status of the fetus as an independent being rather than establishing unity with the mother. This creates space for making decisions about the fetus along with the physical growth of the pregnant woman. Second, ultrasound places the fetus in the context of medical standards. It makes the neural tube defect visible, which makes it possible to measure the thickness of the fetal cervical fold, which indicates that the child will develop Down syndrome. Furthermore, ultrasound turns pregnancy into a medical procedure. fetuses of potential patients and birth defects in avoidable suffering. As a result, pregnancy becomes a process of choice: choosing everything from tests like measuring neck folds to what to do if something is "not right." In addition, parents are appointed as decision makers for the life of their unborn child. The role of ultrasound is indeed contradictory: on the one hand, abortion can encourage them to prevent suffering, on the other hand, abortion can discourage, which strengthens the emotional bond between parents and their unborn child by visualizing the "fetal personality".

Design ethics

In all these examples, human factors are active: they help shape human behavior, interpretation and decision-making. Without human factors, these behaviors, interpretations and decisions will differ. Of course, artificial products are not as interested as humans, because they cannot do anything intentionally. However, their lack of consciousness does not prevent artificial products from having the literal intention of the Latin word "intention", meaning "guidance", "guiding your way", "guiding your thoughts". The intention of artificial products can be found under their guidance of human behavior and experience. Therefore, technical intermediaries can be considered a specific, material form. For the second aspect of intention, that is , the "originality" of intention can be derived in similar arguments. For although artificial products themselves clearly cannot represent intention, they are also because they lack consciousness, and their mediating effects cannot be entirely reduced to their designers and the intentions of users. Otherwise , the intention of artificial products will be a variant of Searle's so-supported "orientation of the deriad" (1983), which can fully restore the intention of human beings. Many times technology will mediate human behavior and experience without human instructions. For example, the use of certain technologies varies from the designer's expectations. The initial speed of the car was only 15 kilometers per hour, mainly for sports and medical purposes; driving at 15 km/h was considered to create a "thin air" environment, which is healthy for people with lung diseases. Only after the car was interpreted as long-term transportation, the car played an immediate role between work and leisure (Baudet, 1986). In this case, unexpected mediation occurs in a specific environment for use. However, when expected technology is used, it can also be unpredictable mediation. In fact, the arrival of mobile phones has led to changes in youth culture - for example, there seems to be less and less socializing between young people, because everyone can call and answer calls anytime, anywhere - this is not the original phone Desigone the The Desigone The use is precisely in the context considered by the designer. Therefore, it is reasonable to attribute the intention of specific forms to artificial products. This " "material" form is very different from human intention, because it cannot exist without the support of human intention. Only in the relationship between people and reality can artificial products play the mediating role of the "expected". When mediating between people and reality, artificial products help to shape objects that are in reality experienced or influence, as well as subjects with experience and a role. This means that the object of action or decision-making is never pure people, but a complex combination of human nature and technology. When knowledge mediated by technology about the possibility of children suffering from serious diseases, that decision is not "pure" by decision or technology. The very situation of this decision and the way of making decisions are determined by technical artificial products. Without these technologies there is no choice or decisions are made based on different relationships. at the same time

P.-P。verbeek

The technology involved does not dictate the human decision here. Ethical decision-making is a joint endeavor between humans and technological artifacts. Strictly speaking, then, there is no such thing as "technological intentionality"; intentionality is always a hybrid event involving both human and non-human. Intentionality is divided into human and non-human elements. This intentionality is not "derived" from the human subject, but arises in the relationship between humans and non-humans. It can therefore be called "hybrid intentionality" or "distributed intentionality".

2.2

technology and freedom

What is the other requirement for moral action that we highlighted at the beginning of this chapter: freedom, even autonomy? Now that we have concluded that artifacts can have some form of intentionality, can we also say that they have freedom? Obviously not. Likewise, freedom requires the possession of a spirit, which artifacts do not. Therefore, technology cannot be free like human beings. However, there are good arguments against completely excluding artifacts from the realm of freedom necessary for moral action. To demonstrate this, I will first say that human freedom in moral decision-making is never absolute, but is always subject to certain circumstances, including the material infrastructure, in which the decision must be made. Second, I will argue that, in human-technical associations that embody mixed intentionality, freedom should also be seen as a division between human and non-human elements in the association. While freedom is clearly a necessary condition for taking responsibility for one's actions, the completely technologically mediated nature of our daily lives makes it difficult to consider freedom as an absolute criterion of moral action. After all, as noted above, technology plays a major role in almost every ethical decision we make. Decisions about how fast to drive and how risky a person is to injure others are always shaped by factors such as the layout of the road, the power of the car's engine, the presence or absence of reclining backs and safety cameras. .etc. The decision whether or not to have surgery is often based on various imaging techniques, blood tests, etc., which help us shape our bodies in specific ways to organize a particular choice situation. Of course, moral freedom of choice does not necessarily require full autonomy. A certain degree of freedom may be sufficient to allow people to take moral responsibility for their actions. Not all freedoms have been taken away by technological mediation, as the examples of abortion and driving speed show. In these examples, human behavior is not determined by technology, but shaped by technology, and people can still think about their behavior and make decisions. However, this does not change the fact that most mediations, such as those arising from supine and ultrasound scanners as common options in medical practice, are carried out in a pre-reflexive manner and cannot be avoided in any way. in moral decision making. moral dilemma

Design ethics

If there is no technology in these practices, the question of whether you want to leave or drive will not exist in the same way, and these difficulties are formed by these technologies. Technology is necessary in our daily lives. The concept of freedom places a form of sovereignty on technology that people no longer possess. the conclusion can be interpreted in two different ways. The first is that mediation has nothing to do with morality. If moral energy requires freedom, and the limitations of technical mediation or even destroy human freedom, then only the situation of non-technical mediation leaves room for morality. Technical products cannot to make moral decisions, and human behavior caused by technology is fundamentally non-moral. A good example of this criticism is the negative response to clear behavior control technology (such as car speed limits). In general, there are two arguments supporting resistance to such technologies. First of all , people are worried that human freedom will be threatened and democracy will be replaced by technical rule. Critics believe that if all human behavior is guided by technical guidance, the result will be a technical bureaucratic society. In this society, moral issues are resolved by machines, not humans. Second, there are immoral accusations, or at best an immoral claim. It is not a product of our own free will, but the behavior caused by technology cannot be described as "moral"; worse, tech-centric technology can cause moral inertia, which is the mortal capacity for citizens to be fatal. The essence of this criticism is very problematic. The analysis of the technical mediators mentioned above shows that human behavior is always a mediator. In the words of Latour, "without technical bypasses, real people cannot exist. (...) Morality is not more humane than technology. In a certain sense, morality will produce a constitution. Human beings will become the master of their and their own master and the universe. Suppose that the world has crossed, just like technology, it creates a form of human nature, subjective choice, objective form and different kinds of attachment." (Latur, 2002). Just even if there are no speeders, the driver's behavior is constantly mediated: in fact, it is easy for a car to exceed the speed limit, and because our road is so wide, the curve is so gentle that we can drive too fast, we can drive too fast are constantly invited to call to call. Fill the accelerator and pod. In fact, it is a sense of responsibility to give inevitable technical mediation, not a direct rejection of "moral technology". Therefore, the conclusion that mediation is incompatible with morality is not satisfactory. In fact, there is no morally related situation of technology. If such a conclusion extracted, that is, there is no place for morality and moral judgment in all the circumstances that technology has played, which is to throw the baby with the bathwater. Therefore, an alternative solution is needed to resolve the apparent tension between technical mediation and ethics. Absolute freedom is not we should consider as a condition of moral ability, but it should be interpreted as the ability to relate to him or her. Human behavior always occurs in irregular reality and before

P.-P。verbeek

Frankly speaking, absolute freedom can only be achieved by ignoring reality and thus completely giving up the possibility of action. Freedom is not a lack of power and limitation, but an existential space in which people must be aware of their existence. People have a relationship with their own existence and the way it is partly shaped by the material culture in which it takes place. The material conditions of human existence create certain forms of freedom, not hinder them. Freedom consists in offering man the possibility of establishing a relationship with the environment in which he lives and in which he is bound. Of course, this redefinition of freedom still leaves no room for actually attributing freedom to technological artifacts. But it brings artifacts back into the realm of freedom, rather than excluding them altogether. After all, on the one hand, they contribute to the creation of freedom by providing the physical environment in which human existence unfolds and is shaped. Artifacts, on the other hand, can create associations with people, and these associations made up in part of material artifacts are where freedom must exist. Because, although freedom is never absolute, but is always shaped by technical and situational mediations, these mediations also create space for moral decision-making. Freedom, like intentionality, seems to be something hybrid, focused primarily on people's association with artifacts.

2.3

Conclusion: Materiality and moral action

This expansion of the notions of intentionality and freedom may raise the question of whether we should really use these basic ethical concepts to understand the moral relevance of technological artifacts. To show that the answer to this question is yes, we can give an example articulated by Latour: the debate between the NRA and its opponents. During this debate, opponents of virtually unlimited gun use in the United States used the slogan "Guns kill people," while the NRA responded with the slogan "Guns don't kill people; people do" (Latour, 1999, p. 176). The NRA's position seems to be most aligned with mainstream ethical thinking. If someone is shot, no one would argue that the gun causes the shooting. However, the anti-gun stance also makes sense here: in a gun-free society, fewer fights lead to murder. More than tools, weapons are the medium of human free will; it helps define situations and actions by offering specific options for action. A gun shapes the person with the gun into a potential shooter and his or her opponent into a potentially fatal wound. Without in any way denying the importance of human responsibility, this example illustrates that when someone shoots, the freedom of choice is not just about shooting a gun or hitting someone, but must be based on the meeting of the two. intentionality and

Design ethics

Freedom, as it should be. This example shows that (1) intent is almost never a purely human event, but is often a matter of interaction between humans and technology; (2) freedom should not be considered an "external" influence on the agent, but a relation from such a practice of influence or mediation.

Design material ethics

The analysis of the moral strength of technical products is of great importance for the ethics of technology and technical design. First of all, the method of technical mediation clearly shows that moral issues surrounding technological development do not only include weighing technical risks and preventing disasters, regardless of how important these activities are. When technology is introduced into society, it is also important that these technologies mediate human behavior and experience to help shape our moral decisions and the quality of our lives. Therefore, technology design ethics should also account for the future mediating role of technology in design. In addition , our analysis of technical agencies shows that even without clear moral thinking, technical design is fundamentally a moral activity. The designer inevitably plays an artificial product in people's behavior and experience to help shape (moral) decision-making and practice. The designer has "materialized morality". ; they "make morality in different ways" (see Verbeek, 2006). This conclusion extended the scope of technical ethics to the moral dimension of the artificial product itself and tried to shape these dimensions responsibly to become more urgent.

3.1

designed as a combined desk

However, in practice, undertaking this responsibility will encounter some serious problems. First, in order to "build" some agencies or eliminate unwanted intermediaries, it is necessary to foresee the environment for future uses in the design process, and the design activities and products designed by , there may not be clear relationships between intermediaries. Technical intermediaries are not an inherent quality of technology, but are produced in a complex interaction between designers, users and technology. As mentioned above, technology can be used in an unpredictable way, so it can play an unpredictable intermediary role .Salvaged light bulbs are another example, which actually leads to an increase in energy consumption, as this type of light bulb appears to be often used for economic effects (Steg, 1999; Weegink, 1996). In addition, as technology as technology as technology as technology as technology as technology as technology as technology as technology as technology as technology

100

P.-P。verbeek

Used as intended by the designer. A good example is revolving barriers that keep cold air and people in wheelchairs. In short, designers have an important role in implementing some form of mediation, but not the only one. Users and their forms of interpretation and appropriation also play a role; as well as technology that produces unexpected and unexpected forms of mediation. Figure 1 illustrates these complex relationships between technology, designer and user in mediating behavior and interpretation. The diagram clearly shows that all human actions and all interpretations that support the making of moral decisions have three forms of action: (1) The intervention of people who carry out actions or make moral decisions, interact with technology and use it in specific ways technological artifacts; (2) the designer's action, through implicit or explicit empowerment, to give specific forms to the artifacts used, thereby helping to shape the final mediation of the artifact; (3) the intervention of an artifact that mediates human behavior and decisions, sometimes in unpredictable ways. Taking responsibility for technical mediation therefore comes down to interacting with the agency of the prospective user and artefacts in the design, rather than acting as a "prime mover" (see Smith, 2003). The fundamental unpredictability of the resulting technological mediation does not mean that designers cannot deal with it by definition. In order to deal with the unpredictability and complexity of technological mediation, it is important to look for connections between the design environment and the environment of future use. Design specifications should be derived from the product's intended function and informed predictions of the product's mediating roles, as well as an ethical assessment of those roles. An important tool in establishing this design context and using contextual linking is the designer's moral imagination, as trivial as it may sound. The designer can mediate the product with his moral judgments during the design phase by imagining how the design technology will be used and shaping user behavior and interpretation from that perspective. Mediation analysis (see Verbeek, 2006) can provide a good basis for this. This approach does not guarantee that designers can anticipate all relevant mediators, but designers can take the greatest responsibility for the mediator role of their products.

As shown in the picture.1 origin of a technological intermediary

Design ethics

3.2

101

moral intervention

There are two ways of using mediation analysis in technology ethics and design ethics. First, they can be used to morally assess technologies in terms of their mediating role in human practice and experience. Second, the conclusion that artifacts have specific moral forms also moves ethics from the realm of language to the realm of matter. When artifacts are morally relevant and embody a certain form of moral action, ethics cannot only be concerned with developing a conceptual framework for moral reflection, but must also be concerned with developing a physical environment that helps shape moral behavior and decision-making. Hans Achterhuis calls this "the moralizing of technology" (Achterhuis, 1995). The first way of including mediation in ethics is the closest to the usual practice in technological ethics. This means intensifying the current focus on risk assessment and disaster prevention. Rather than focusing on the acceptability and avoidability of negative consequences of the introduction of new technologies, the aim is to assess the impact of technological mediating capability in design on human practice and experience. In the action ethics approach, moral reflection focuses on whether actions mediated by a certain technology are morally justified. This reflection can be conducted along deontological or consequentialist lines. But in many cases, an ethical or bioethical approach has been at least as fruitful in assessing technological mediation, emphasizing the quality of practice introduced by mediating technology and its impact on the lives we live. .Not only the effect of mediation on specific human behavior is important, but also the ways in which mediating technologies help shape people, the world they experience, and the way they behave in that world. Returning to the example of ultrasound, instead of only evaluating the impact of routine ultrasound on obstetric care in terms of safety and abortion rates, a bioethical approach would seek to assess the quality of fetal practices that accompany ultrasound as it emerges and is shaped by its future parents in specific ways, as a potential patient and decision maker. , and in a specific mutual relationship, the situation of choice. Another way to strengthen technical ethics with a technical mediation approach is to assess and help shape mediation work. The ethics of technology should not study technology from an external point of view, aimed at rejecting or embracing new technologies, but aimed at guiding technological development (Hottois), trying to mediate and finding ways to discuss and assess how one might respond to these mediations, and which Tech Life types are preferred. However, the intentional incorporation of mediation into technological artifacts is controversial. Behavioral technology is rarely warmly embraced, as the frequent speed-radar breaches illustrate. 2 However, since we have seen all 2

For a more detailed analysis of behavioral technologies, see Verbeek and Slob (2006).

102

P.-P。verbeek

Technology inevitably mediates the relationship between humans and the world to shape moral behavior and decision-making; on the contrary, it shows that ethics should deal responsibly with this mediation and try to help design technology with morally reasonable mediating capabilities. The essence of behavior-oriented technology clearly shows that this "moral materialization" cannot leave the responsibility of individual designers. The behaviors and decisions of designers always have public consequences, so those decisions and consequences should be upheld by public decision. As Latour (2005) recently explained, the products of design work have actually become "public goods" in the sense of Res Publika." Res" means "things" in Latin. , and it also means "gathering place" or "meeting place", and even represents a certain form of parliament. Therefore, "things" can be interpreted as entities that collect, unite and differentiate people around and other things. From this perspective, technically artificial products not only help shape our lives and subjectivities, but should also be considered by people who come together to discuss how they help these things to help their existence and judgement. This is precisely where the morality of design should exist.3

Literature Achterhuis, H., 1995, devices, socialism and moralization of democracy 52 (1): 3-12.Akrich, M., 1992, description of technical objects, in: design technology / architectural association, W. e. Bijker and J. Law, ed., Mit Press, Cambridge, Mon, PP.205–224.Borgmann, A., 1995, the moral significance of material culture, in: technology and knowledge policy, edited by A. Feenberg and A. Hannay, Indiana University Press, Bloomington/Minney Apolis, p.85-93.D., 1990, Technology and the World Wall, Indiana University Press, Bloomington/Minneapolis.IHDE, D., 1998, Extended Hermeneutics, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, Il.Latour, B., 1992, where did the masses disappeared?Sociology of several daily artifacts, in: Shaping Technology/Architectural Association, W. E. Bijker and J. Law, ed., Mit Press, Cambridge, Ma, p.225-258.B. Latour, B., 2002, Ethics and Technology: The End of Resources, Theory, Cults.& Soc.19 (5-6): 247-260.Latour, B, 2005, from Realpolitik to Dingpolitik: or How to make Things Public: Making Things Public: The Atmosphere of Democracy, edited by B. Latour and P. Weibel, Mit Press, Mad, Cambridge, Massachusetts, p.4–31.

This article is written under the financing of the Dutch organization for scientific research of NWO (Incentive Plan for Innovation Research, "Veni" Track).

Design ethics

103

Smith, A., 2003, do you believe in Morale? Latour and IHDE in the trenches of the scientific war, in: Potraji for the technology: matrix for the matrix, D. IHDE and E. Selinger, University of Indiana Press, Blumamon/Indianapolis, p.182–194.steg, L., 1999, energy waste? What do you do for The Hague environment, the Office of Social and Cultural Planning and what do the Dutch (SCP Cahier No. 156). Verbeek, P.P.On technology, agency and design, Pennsylvania State University Press, Pennsylvania University Park, P. P. P., 2006, "Specifically Moral: Design Ethics and Technical Mediation", "Science", "Technology" and "Build".): 361-380.verbeek, P. P. and SLOB, A., 2006, user behavior and technology development: the design of sustainable relationship between consumer and technology, volume.20 industrial and scientific ecological efficiency, speling, Doracht.weegink, R. J., 1996, 1996, 1996Basisonderzokzo Electricity Consumption is small consumed back'95, Earger -by -Energy, Anum.winner, L., 1986, artifacts have politics?, In: The Whale and the reactor, L. Winner, ed., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p.19-39.

Re-reflecting the key technical theory and the Patrick Feng and Andrew Feenberg Design Process

present

In this chapter we provide a framework for the design technology of thinking. The method relies on a critical view of social theory and research of science and technology (STS). We understand the process of conscious artificial products to adapt to a particular purpose and environment.to the process.In this process, technical and social factors are combined in order to produce certain equipment suitable for a particular environment. How this happens -and the possibility that it can happen in different ways -is a focus on which philosophers and other science and engineering students need to think about.So far, design research is mostly focused on the work of our proximal designer so collected, and the work of STS is concentrated on the role of non -payment, such as customers, stakeholders and other social groups.1.However, few people pay attention to the process of designing a historical selection and culture. It is a goal to solve this mistake. We have been waiting for the appointment of a seemingly simple question: does the design of the intentional? Review of literature attracts our attention to at least three possible levels of analysis: close designers, directlydesigner environment and wider society. Then we suggested a critical technical theory that provides a method of informal and intangible for technical research. We believe that critical theory emphasizes the hypothetical assumptions of the inspection and provides theoretical space for designing and designing in different ways. In the course, we discussed some obstacles thathave provided critical theory and some obstacles to achieve the richer world of design.

P. Feng, Calgary A. Feenberg University, University of Simon Fraser 1 Woodhouse and Patton (2004) define proximal designers as professionals who are closest to the design process: engineers, architects, cartoons, graphics, etc.

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

105

106

P. Feng i A. Feenberg

Design and intent

The design is often understood as an activity aimed at a goal, so it seems that intenthicality is embedded in the definition of a term.But is the design really intentional?In other words, to what extent do the intentions of the designers shape the products they produce?Literature reveals three general points: first, there are those who believe that designers have great control over the design process;Second, there are those who believe that designers are so limited that they cannot translate their goals and intentions to products;Finally, there are those who see the design as a function of a wider culture.The latter view questions the idea of intentions, questioning the difference between designers and society.

2.1

Strong intentions: designers are powerful

The idea of achieving things "by design" shows that designers have great power.It is the opposite of technological determinism, where people can manage technological development.It is based on the assumption that the intention plays an important role in the design: conscious decision -making about behavior man can be better designed.The work of Norman (1988) gives a good example of this point of view.Norman saw a strong connection between better designers and better design.For example, his "bad design" creates a lot of debts because the job job is not done by professional designers, do engineers, developers and managers "(1988, 156).will do it.Designers must assume that all possible mistakes will happen and design by minimizing the possibility of errors or their effects (1988, 36).In this vision, designers are powerful - after all, their knowledge and value shape the form of our technology.Competitive distribution between designers and public is crucial for good design.Although he admits that manufacturers, store owners, consumers and others may have competitive demands, he claims that "he may not be able to meet the designer" (1988, 1988, 28).He thus bypasses the issues of conflict and power, and while Norman sometimes calls for a non-dizajner to participate-"[D] Designer teams need voice lawyers for those who use the interface" (1988, 156) -on that does so.In a clear way, it clearly shows that the designer is the main one.The user is completely called technology and should be a passive recipient of technology.As a result, Norman and authors assume that the intention is what the designer expresses in the design.Its secret to improvement of design is to have better, more enlightened designers.Although this view has a great

Consider the design

107

It questions the idea that technological development is predetermined and has several drawbacks. These include a lack of attention to the diversity and conflicts between user groups, the constraints faced by designers 'on the spot' and the cultural conditions in which designers work. Furthermore, this view assumes a sharp distinction between intended and unintended consequences, which is highly problematic. 2 The approach of strong intentionality sees the intimate designer as a key participant in the design process. This approach has some affinity with the instrumentalist philosophy of technology, in which technology is seen as a neutral resource for human purpose. The designer's role is to assess the various demands placed on the technology—requirements that are considered outside of the design process—and then, using their expertise, optimize against them. As such, design is considered primarily technical in nature. In recent years, this point of view has been challenged by approaches (especially STS) that emphasize the social contingency of design.

2.2

Weak Intent: Designers are limited

While some authors argue that designers are powerful, others argue the opposite, that designers are limited by various factors: economic, political, institutional, social and cultural. Under such constraints, designers are assumed to have varying degrees of autonomy. Consider the following three examples. Noble (1977) provided an example of a neo-Marxist analysis of labor relations and corporate growth. Noble argued that the rise of corporate capitalism in the United States went hand in hand with the fusion of science and technology with industry, and showed that as management became more and more a "science," workers lost more and more autonomy. Industrial relations is conceived as a means by which "forward-looking industrial leaders seek to adapt—or appear to adapt—industrial realities to the needs of workers in order to

2 Winner (1986) questioned the notion of "unintended consequences", arguing that in many cases it is useless to determine whether someone has "intentionally" harmed another: saying that the technological deck is pre-stacked to promote some social good, and that some Some will people are sure to get better cards than others" (26). For this reason, we prefer SCLove's (1995) term "out-of-focus effect" because it draws attention to the fact that technical "effect" depends largely on what one chooses to focus on or ignore in an analysis .3 Compare this with Chandler's (1977) account of why managerial capitalism emerged in the United States in the nineteenth century.Noble explains that management The Rise of the USA is a deliberate move by corporations to gain more control over the workforce, and Chandler sees this as a necessary and inevitable step in the evolution of corporate America, facilitated by the emergence of new "revolutionary" technologies One step While Noble wants to point out the power relations behind the changes in American business, Chandler tries to obscure them by referring to the need for technological progress.

108

P. Feng i A. Feenberg

By making the capitalist working class more lively, solve the hostile criticism and isolation and irreconcilable radical "(1977, p. 290). Although noble books are not specifically targeted, it shows that, including designers, including designers, all kinds of employees have almost no possibility to follow own intentions when it conflicts with the interests of the company. Of course, there is still room for design choices (for example, what color to apply the car to), but the company's review excludes a true radical design replacement. Others are not as comprehensive in their analysis. example, in his analysis of a high-tech company, Kunda (1993) believes that even if the control of employees has become more subtle and insidious, there is a virus and a virus A virus of recovery and virginity and a virus Space of resistance. He shows that the limitations of employees do not have to be clear. Although is "self-management" perhaps the buzzword of today's knowledge economy, the demands of management are unreasonable in modern companies. They are even in modern companies. They are even unreasonable. If managers never expressed these demands directly. Kunda cites the company's professional development manual and indicates how responsibility for management performance is transferred from management to employees: the work or results of the "organization" or "management" is clear. But if you really value your energy and talent, you will use them correctly as a responsibility "to yourself". (1993, 57)

In such an environment, designers who start to think that they have full autonomy can be found limited by a intricate network of norms and corporate cultural expectations.4 Finally, Bucciarelli (1994) offers an optimistic view of limited designs.Drawn mainly from negotiations with colleagues.His analysis, although he does not completely neglect the issues of political economy or organizational control, often bypasses these questions, focusing instead of how designer teams agree on "good design".His design philosophy;If designers in his stories had restrictions, it was because they had to work with other design team members to do a job - less restrictions than external market pressures, etc. Overall, Bucciarelli takes a significant degree of autonomy for designers, despitenumerous and often contradictory limitations.The approach of weak intentions to design views as a number of complex negotiations between close designers in the immediate design environment, ie clients, business leaders and other stakeholders.Institutional rules and organizational culture often play a role in this aspect of analysis.This method is in line with

4 Downey (1998) Ethnography of engineering students is well illustrated by this tension.He notes that a student at the CAD/CAM course faces contradictory narratives: on the one hand, she is told, "[m] machines are slaves - they are stupid, they are stupid" (135).However, just a few days later - after being quite frustrated by the laboratory project - the Students said: "[V] and you are also slaves of computer" (137).Caught between these contradictory statements, students began to question their actual control over the machine.

design thinking

109

Some approaches are used in ST, such as social constructionism and actor network theory, in which designers are seen as influential actors who participate in conflicts and negotiate with other interested actors.

2.3

Intention of the question: the designer and the whole society

Finally, some authors connect design with broader sociocultural trends, questioning the notion of intentionality. A good example of this approach is Edwards' (1996) History of Computing during the Cold War. In his book A Closed World, Edwards states that "American weapons and American culture cannot be understood in isolation" (1996, p. 7). He shows how academia, the military, industry and popular culture came together in the "closed world" of Cold War ideology. Edwards defines the closed world as "a scene of extremely limited conflict, an inevitably self-referential space in which every thought, word, and action can ultimately be traced back to the central struggle" (1996, p. 12). In such a world, the question is whether anyone really has a free choice. How, for example, could designers reject the values and assumptions of Cold War ideology and come up with alternative designs? The discourse of the closed world of the Cold War defined everything in terms of containment: the goal was to contain communism by protecting and expanding the borders of the so-called free world. Within this discursive space, opinions about which technologies are necessary or desirable have specific details: increasing military precision requires "a theory of human psychology comparable to that of machines" (1996, 20); "Getting out of the loop" and integration, "letting go of those who are still more productive" are the answers of psychologists and other academics. Edwards concludes that the material and symbolic aspects of the computer are closely related to the politics of the Cold War; the politics of the Cold War are actually built into the machines that computer scientists have been building for the last half century. A similar blurring of the line between designers and society at large can be seen in Abbates' (1999) examination of the anarchic beginnings of the Internet. She argues that the "invention" of this technology was not an isolated, one-time event: "The meaning of the Internet had to be invented—and continually reinvented—contemporaneously with the technology itself" (1999, p. 6). Her view of the history of the Internet suggests that there is no "master plan": the sources of its designs cannot be found in one place, but are dispersed among individuals and groups, loosely connected by a shared culture, each of whom can even Know nothing else. The third approach is insufficiently represented in contemporary design research. It does not fit the instrumentalist assumptions of strong propositions of intentionality, nor weak propositions of intentionality compatible with the OPS approach. Instead, a cultural sociology is assumed, which must then be combined with a philosophy of technology that is open to cultural considerations. Design is not only a strategic competition between stakeholders and social groups, but also

110

P. Feng i A. Feenberg

The designers seem to be the things "natural" .Vis inspection has passed our attention from the nearby designers on the background assumptions that operate in a broader range of culture. We will decide this method in the second half of this chapter.

2.4

Designer: strong or weak?

Taking these views into account, we reinterpret the role of the designer in shaping technology. If the designer is strong, we hope that their views will become the most important factor in determining the technical form. On the other hand, if the designer is weak, their role is only to derive the point of view of others; equipment reflects only the values of the influential participants, not the values of the design team. Obviously, in some cases each of these positions can be accurately described. The designer has a significant influence on the design process, and sometimes affects the results. closest to the design process, you will miss the larger political, economic and cultural structures of their activities. The influence of non-technical influence on design appears in the form of external pressure, but it is also inside the technical field itself. For designers, technical and sensible things are functions of many factors, including the results of her education and the technical choices made under different social influences in the past. In other words, even in "pure technology" activities, designers will be guided by the rules of a specific culture and value load. 5 Therefore, design always shows social biases. This deviation is an important part of design. , because optimization for specific conditions requires consideration of social factors, such as costs and compatibility. Conversely, this society pays attention to some "facts" about the social world; they judge the value of the past naturally, and the judgment of those values is by no means natural, and how those past judgments are forgotten. Criticism of critical theory is that self-confidence.

Technical critical theory

We explained how traditional literature on design research focuses on the work of intimate designers, conceptualizing design as instrumental activity.Recent work on STS points out the social element by focusing on 5. Example for this is the use of scientific and technical standards by the designers in their work.Designers are the standards of neutral and unproblematic: they represent fortified guidelines and best practice within their design community.However, as numerous STS studies have shown, the development of such standards is political, but also technical in nature: technical standards are never "clean technical" (Bowker and Star, 2000).

design thinking

111

The actions and strategies of social groups close to the design process. What is missing from these two accounts is an acknowledgment of the technology and practice of the past—our engineering heritage, if you will, how to shape current design. Thus the influence of historical and cultural development is not entirely theoretical. Critical Theory tries to solve that carelessness.

3.1

Comparison of critical theory and existing approaches

Many ops scientists have already solved the design problem.Many approaches have appeared two: the social construction of technology (Scot) and the theory of the Network of Acts (Ant).In short, Scot theorists see technology as controversial and contingent, the result of struggles between different social groups, each with their own interests.To understand the design, it is necessary to monitor the history of the development of a particular technology, seeking the impact of relevant social groups.Likewise, Ant theorists claim that technologies are random, the result of strategies and tactics used by key players to gather stable networks of people and devices where new technologies will succeed.Critical theory moves focus from the microrazine analysis of the constructivist research of technology on macrorazine.We take for granted technology is socially constructed.However, while Scot focuses on the discovery of which social groups have the greatest impact on the design of certain technologies, and Ant focuses on strategies that use different actors in design of certain technologies, we are interested in wider cultural values and exercise.In other words, our focus was less on certain social groups or strategies they used, and more on what cultural resources were used in the design process (see Table 1).

Table 1 designed three theoretical perspectives

Technical critical theory

Culture, spreading society

How is the conceptualized design?Design as a technical task design as a political task

Where is the process located? Design at the micro-level (negotiations between key players) at the micro- and meso-level (structured interactions between actors in existing power hierarchies) embedded at the macro-level (historical and cultural traditions and the influence of culture on design practice)

112

P. Feng and A. Feenberg

Feenberg (1999; 2002) developed this approach as an "instrumental theory".This is a key version of constructivism, where technology is not only understood that it serves the interests or plans of its participants, but also designed for the cultural context of society.The rules for decisions are provided in which technical design is selected.This context has two forms: beliefs and practices of everyday world and knowledge of cultural preferences cultivated in technological disciplines shaped throughout the history of technological choices.The action of technology should therefore act on two levels, the level of technological activity and the level of current energy relationships or socio-cultural conditions, to determine a clear design.Take, for example, a simple technology: a bike.Know that bicycles are an important way of transportation in Dutch cities - much more than in most North American cities.Fijijski roads are an important feature of Dutch cities and cyclists calmly live with drivers.This is in sharp opposites with North American cities where cyclists have to fight the driver to use the road.Furthermore, daily use of bicycles is a technical practice supported by other technology, "Dutch roads", which contain extensive cycling roads, as well as this important social expectation regarding the proper use of bicycles.6 What is interesting here is the main meaning related to a particular device, in this case tape: In the Netherlands, legal users of bicycles and cyclists are the users of the road (indeed, cyclists often have an advantage);In North America, the same equipment and people are special, both for the primary users of highway, motorists.In the Netherlands, the same word associates with a car and a bike.Our argument is that the "naturalness" of interpretation of certain devices in a particular social context is particularly important.An important fact is that people living in Amsterdam see cyclists as natural road users - until those living in Atlanta do it - it is important."Technology" is a background condition of technological design.Scotland wants to focus on the actions of a particular actors or a group of actors, not actions.Bells and whistles of North American bicycles often look more for amateurs.This again illustrates the way the device is expected and built dominant insight into technology and how it should work.Furthermore, as Pinch and Bijker (1987) showed in their Bicycle Development Study, different styles reflect today's views between designers and users on the most important values in bicycles (eg fashion opposite comfort versus comfort or speed opposite safety) .7 Little).Scotta promised it in Scottish original recipe.We also suggest that it is important whether anyone will start analysis with a "wider context" or as a side issue.

design thinking

3.2

113

instrumentalization theory

We now turn to a more detailed presentation of the theory of instrumentalization. The starting point is the concept of technical elements. We refer to the most basic technical ideas and related simple implementations related to the construction of equipment and the execution of technical operations. Anthropologists suspect that the combination of the ability to view objects as resources, upright posture, and opposable thumbs formed a constellation that predisposed humans to technological communication with the environment. In this sense, humans have achieved an overdevelopment of abilities that other higher mammals display in secondary ways. The premise of this fundamental technological orientation is imaginative and emotional: humans can see and formulate technological possibilities that other animals cannot. These most basic technical insights involve identifying the "technical elements," capabilities, or useful properties of things. What is involved in observing the technical elements? Two things need to be done: first, the world needs to be understood in terms of the possibilities it offers for purposeful action; secondly, the subject of this action must see himself as such, that is, as a transcendent manipulator of things. The technical configuration of such a subject and the way it perceives its objects constitutes "primary instrumentalization." Primary instrumentation works by decontextualizing objects and simplifying them to emphasize the qualities that give them function. 8 This technical insight seems to have little social character, and the elements can be used in a very wide range of social contexts. In this sense, they are relatively neutral towards different social values. Nevertheless, a detailed study will reveal at least some minimal social conditions governing choice and implementation, even in its simplest form. When technological elements appear in the context of complex technological traditions, they presuppose the social and cultural shaping of past technological practices and may therefore contain significant social content. Technical elements are initially invented, but are realized in the transformation of objects. Social constraints more complex than simple goals make up the elements. It is "secondary instrumentation", in which elements are given socially acceptable forms and assembled into technical devices. Secondary instrumentalization occurs by repositioning and integrating simplified objects into specific natural and social contexts. Design is the process of arranging relatively neutral technical elements to form a vivid concrete device that fits into a particular social context. The relationship between technical elements and equipment is exemplified in Figure 1. Consider the design of everyday objects such as refrigerators. To make a refrigerator, engineers need basic components such as electrical circuits and motors, insulating materials, gases from special 8

See Feenberg (1999), especially p. p. 202–208 for a more detailed account of instrumentalization theory.

114

P. Feng and A. Feenberg Technical Element

equipment

Relatively neutral are relatively uncomfortable with instrumentalization limitations

Very biased Very limited Very 2º Instrumentalized

Technical elements are combined according to technical codes to create concrete equipment

As shown in the picture. 1 Relationship between technical elements and individual devices

types, etc., combining them in complex ways to create and storage cold.Each of these techniques can be cleared to simpler unnatural and simplified elements.This is a level dominated by a primary instrument in the form of pure technical insight.But although these technical issues are so thoroughly simplified and taken from all contexts, knowledge of the components is still not enough to completely determine the design.Important questions remain, such as the size of the refrigerator, which are not resolved technically, but in social principles (eg, the probable needs of standard household).Even the size of the household is not completely crucial: refrigerators in countries where people buy on foot every day are usually smaller than countries where people buy a car every week.So, in essence, the technical design of this artifact depends on the social design of society.The refrigerators are inappropriately connected by these two different phenomena.Two aspects of engineering have a complex relationship.The technical element would not be possible without some minimal availability to put in context.Initially, little is needed, perhaps just a very general socially approved goal.As technological players begin to combine these elements, more and more limitations affect design decisions.Some of these limitations refer to compatibility between different components of the new device and between the new device and other functions of the technical environment.Some are associated with natural disasters or requirements that affect equipment.Others deal with the ethical-legal or aesthetic dimensions of the social world that surrounds them.The role of a secondary instrumentation is increasing as we follow the invention of its origin through the successive phase of its development and concretization into socially circulating agents.Even after the new device was released to the public, it is still subject to further secondary instrumentation at the initiative of the user and the regulation.The iterative nature of secondary instrumentation explains why we are inclined to think about technology as a company's abstraction.It is true that technological elements are less under the influence of social restrictions, but we should not interpret fully developed technologies in terms of disparaged rudimentary instrumentalization of the original technological elements of which they are made.

Thinking about design

3.3

115

Design space and technical specifications

In all cases, some aspects of equipment design will change according to different types of requirements, while other aspects remain unchanged. Many aspects that do not change are not visible to users. For example, the types of components and others are standardized. The rest is a set of design possibilities - combined technical elements to produce available equipment. We call this set of technology feasible possibilities as a design space. From this set of possibilities, the "best" will eventually decide to design. Note that "technical feasibility" depends on both the technology of the discussion and the history of the past. Each design community inherits some practices, assumptions and world from its predecessors. The influence of this "technical heritage" on design is at least as much as any interest group or lobbying. Although in theory there may be hundreds of options for technical design, in practice professional designers usually take only one of them one of them a small part of them. Many technically feasible options are unable to do this for such obvious reasons. They don't need social reasons - they are immediately rejected. These forgotten choices are exactly what researchers need to consider. If assumptions and values are revealed, they are part of the "Black Box" technical design. As we say, choosing the "best" design is never a pure technical problem: Design is always uncertain, only secondary tools are passed through secondary tools, the actual shape of the equipment is fixed. Note that as the design process progresses, that is, as more social needs are added, the set of design options may become smaller and smaller. The box can be opened again; when this happens, the design space of specific equipment increases dramatically. It's a slow way to reopen the black box. Rethink the refrigerator: at a certain point there is no idea to use the Idea of CFC. Question; this is just a way to get things done. However, when environmentalists claim that CFCs pose a threat to the ozone layer, this assumption becomes obvious and "how to cool the device?" The problem is back in the design table. Secondary tools show long-term significant regularity throughout society. Standard methods of understanding the standards and equipment of one device and equipment have appeared. Many of these standards reflect specific societal needs that have successfully shaped design. These social standards formed the technical code about the connected devices we are talking about. In the refrigerator example, the technical code determines its size as a function of the social principles of the family scale. In other cases, the technical code has obvious political functions. For example, labor and the mechanized industrial revolution. The labor process theory shows that the technical code of management of these labor transformations responds to capitalist labor control (1977). Policies, but they are usually hidden in the culture and training and have to be brought out

116

P. Feng i A. Feenberg

Through sociological analysis, exclusion. In these two cases, researchers must formulate technical specifications as design standards in an ideal typical way. Developing such a standard helps recognize the translation process between words and practice of technical staff and social, cultural or political facts expressed by other words.The continuous process of conversion between technology and society is arduous, but it is still very effective. At the end, this line of analysis allows researchers to accompany the evolution of certain technologies, from technical elements to different design options, to final specific devices (see Figure 2).The language of technical research technically can be understood as the rules of "black box". In the end of the technical development process, when he finally configured with a given configuration, we knew what "";She got the essence.9 This essence can surely be changed, but compared to the first innovation attempt to create the original very smooth situation of equipment, this is only difficult. Technical specifications prescribe some important aspects of standard configuration, especially those aspects that are transformed between betweensocial and technical requirements.

As shown in the picture. 2 Schematic diagram of the relationship between technical elements, project space and concrete equipment or technology. In the critical theory of technology, the technical code (TC) enables the selection of the "best" design from a large number of design possibilities. The exact selection and application of this code is a matter of experience and will vary depending on the situation being studied. The researcher's task is to obtain TK from a certain environment through sociological analysis.

Note that we are not referring to "essence" in Heidegger's sense, nor is it the non-historical "essence" posited by the essentialist technical philosopher. "Essence" here is specific to a particular equipment in a particular social environment. When the design work is completed and all technical elements are combined according to the combination of technical code to generate certain devices, the equipment is basically because it reflects the specific value, needs and social environment in the design.

design thinking

117

Conclusion: Realization of design possibilities

We began this chapter by asking questions about the role of intentionality in the design process. In particular, we suggest that the path from designer intent to product design is not straightforward. Although designers are seemingly powerful actors, they are also caught in the same web of constraints that other actors face. Designers do not work in a vacuum. Many times design, whether implicit or explicit, requires new equipment to fit established ways of being. In other words, designers must fit into the existing social world, which means that they submit to existing power relations and hierarchies. The stifling effect of this passive coercion is the main obstacle to the realization of alternative designs. We then outline key technical theory and explain how greater attention to the historical and cultural conditions behind the design process can help simplify pathways to different types of design. Technical elements that could in principle be combined in different ways to form a device are brought together under the constraints of a technical code to produce a concrete device "suitable" for a particular social context. Furthermore, designers are influenced by what happened in the past: yesterday's tools determine today's designs, even if yesterday's tools were not optimal. 10 This means that of the many technically feasible options available in the design space, only a small part has been realized. Accomplished. We believe that the process of solving technically uncertain choices should be at the heart of design philosophy. We also believe that rather than understanding the process solely in terms of the interests or strategies of particular actors (such as SCOT and ANT), we need to examine the values and practices that are taken for granted in the wider culture. Knowing that technology is uncertain, then the problem facing society is not to accept or reject technology, but how to bring alternative values into the design process so that the technical codes that define design are human and liberating, not oppressive and liberating. . An important first step in this process is to recognize that neither the proximity of the designer nor the immediate design environment are decisive factors in determining the outcome of a complex design process. Instead, what is crucial are people's unspoken assumptions about the form and meaning of certain technologies – what we call here our technological heritage. Critical technology theory draws attention to these background assumptions and requires researchers to take them seriously. We hope that by actively questioning technology, we can help open up a space where technology can be designed differently.

See, for example, David's (1985) classic study of the Qwerty keyboard, which, although not optimal in terms of type layout and efficiency, is in fact still standard on all keyboards around the world.

118

P. Feng and A. Feenberg

References Abbate, J., 1999, Het internet ingenten, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA Bowker, G.C., en Star, SL, 2000, Dingen uitzoeken: classificatie en de gevolgen daarvan, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Bucciarelli, LL, 1994, Design Engineers, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Chandler, AD, 1977, The Visible Hand: The Management Revolution in American Business, Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA. David, Pennsylvania, 1985, Clio en de economy van QWERTY, Am. Economy. open b. 72(2):332-337. Downey, G., 1998, The Machine in Me: An Anthropologist Sitting Among Computer Engineers, Routledge, NJ. Edwards, P., 1996, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Feenberg, A., 1999, Vragen Technologie, Routledge, New York Feenberg, A., 2002, Transformative Technologies: Critical Theory Revisited, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Kunda, G., 1993, Engineering Culture: Control en toewijding in een hightechcultuur, Temple University Press, Philadelphia Noble, D., 1977, Designing in America: Science, Technology and the Rise of Corporate Capitalism, Alfred A. Knopf, New York . Norman, D., 1988., Het ontwerp van mundane dingen, Basic Books, New York. Pinch, T., en Bijker, W.E., 1987, De sociale constructie van feiten en artefacten, in: The Social Construction of Technological Systems: Sociology and New Directions in the History of Technology, W.E. Bijker, T.P. Hughes and T. Pinch, eds., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Sclove, R., 1995, democratie en technologie, Guilford Press, New York Winnaar, L., 1986, Whales and Reactors: The Quest for Frontiers in the Age of High Technology, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Woodhouse, E., en Patton, JW, 2004, Introduction: Social Design: The Social Shaping of Scientific and Technological Research and Design, Des. Number 20 (3): 1–12.

Designing Culture and Acceptable Risk by Kiyotaka Naoe

Summary technical design is often viewed as a process of defining target functionality.However, technological artifacts are not fully determined by the intentions of the engineers who design them: they inevitably contain unpredictable and vague features that transcend the intentions of the engineer and cannot be understood solely from functionalist perspectives.Air Force, for example, smooth out of flights is provided by systems in which pilots also communicate with each other a number of technical equipment.This article emphasizes the humanistic aspects of technological design and proposes a theoretical framework that takes the sociocultural aspects of technology as a starting point for philosophical and ethical analysis.The risk acceptability analysis shows that the credibility of technology depends on the credibility of technical decisions and, ultimately, the existence of a culture of reliable technology.The job of ethics of risk is therefore to ensure funds to reshape our technological culture.

present

Currently, the question of how to deal with technological risks is becoming more and more important. Engineering is often seen as a cultural activity, that is, something that people do in a social context. Therefore, engineering and risk ethics can be found in this cultural process. However, risk is also considered measurable and objective, especially in scientific risk analysis. In addition, due to the complex nature of the situation in which risk analysis takes place and certain uncertainties, comprehensive optimization of technology cannot be expected, and the rationality of risk analysis must correspond to "bounded rationality". This might remind us of the well-known conflict between cultural relativism and naïve positivism. In this chapter, however, I have taken a different approach and avoided mentioning this conflict, that is, underestimating or overestimating risk analysis. That is why I focus on the issue of risk acceptability.

K. Naoe, Northeastern University

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

119

120

knee

As an introduction to the following discussion, let us focus on a statement by E. S. Ferguson. In "Engineering and the Mind's Eye" (1992), in a discussion of computer-aided design (CAD), he argues that "numerical calculations always embody human judgment": the results of a precise [design] process cannot be derived from the original goals. […] The illusion of safety in automation does not reduce the amount or quality of human judgment required for successful design. Designing anything reasonably complex to achieve [...] requires constant calculation, judgment and compromises that can only be undertaken by engineers of the type of system they are designed for. (Ferguson, 1992, 37)

People are inclined to distinguish traditional technology behind human expertise and skill from the modern technology that science supports.This specialized knowledge and skill, which cannot be expressed visually or verbally, are replaced or translated into scientific knowledge.In reality, however, they are not completely removed from modern technology (hereinafter referred to as "technology" unless otherwise stated).As with the CAD case, they remain integral elements, although they are partially objectified and radically modified in modern technical procedures.Ferguson calls this knowledge "around the mind" or "intuition".At first glance, this "thought eye" can look purely personal.However, when analyzed from a reflective perspective, a closely related cultural "style" can be identified;This is because the calculation or judgment is based on the accumulation of tacit information and tacit understanding.Therefore, it can be said that certain cultural elements are built into technology.Cultural context is characterized as "cultural technology", and these cultural elements integrated into technology can be characterized as "technology culture".We also call each of these cultural aspects of technology "technological culture" in a broader sense.Closely defined (the difference is explicitly made only where necessary).From this perspective, we can discuss the issue of risk acceptability in a cultural context without denying the need for scientific analysis.Here are some of the questions to address: as specific risks identify as risks;as certain risks are considered socially acceptable;Under what circumstances people consider to be justified accepting risks etc. Studying risk acceptability from this perspective, I try to find answers to practical and ethical discussions related to technology, considering the risk of "spirit of technology" in this chapter.In this way, the technological culture of society or organization becomes a critical debate, the public testing of technology.In the 2nd section, I will look back at the fall of the Challenger space ship in order to discuss the concept of acceptability more specifically and showed that it is deeply rooted (in the narrow sense) in technoculture.In sections 3 and 4, I generalize this point on technology as a whole, noting that technology reliability depends on technological culture.In section 5 I focus on cultural technology, technological culture in general.Based on the Ford Pinto Case study, I create a discussion in which the definition and reliability of design is not relevant only for engineers, but also for society as a whole.Finally, in section 6,

Design culture and acceptable risk

121

Further investigate the idea of a public decision on technology.When I emphasize the limitations of the technical design and responsibility of engineers, I point out the possibility of narrative ethics that can be devoted to improving the culture of design or generally engineering culture.

The case of challenger accident

Let's look first at the explosion of the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986; it is an important textbook example of the ethics of technology. Challenger exploded immediately after liftoff from the Kennedy Space Center, killing all seven members of the space shuttle crew. In the investigations that followed, the O-rings that seal the joints of the rocket carrier of the solid propellant rocket were determined to be the immediate cause of the accident. The description in the manual identifies two problems: 1) Roger Boisjoly, an engineer at the engineering firm Morton Thiokol involved in building the booster, previously identified the problem and reported the risk to his superior; in fact, the night before launch, he suggested postponing the mission. 2) In the end, it was canceled by the decision of the management that was ultimately responsible for the accident. In other words, the responsible behavior of Boisjoly, who stubbornly continued to ask questions, and the actions and attitude of Morton Thiokol and NASA management in prioritizing and continuing the launch, aware of the risks, can be described as "the profession of engineering". Morality" and "Management Logic". The above analysis raises ethical issues related to professional responsibility, questioning of fairness and impartiality, trustworthiness and conflict between engineers and their organizations (eg Harris et al., 1995, 4ff.). However, sociologist Diane Vaughan (1996) conducted ethnographic research closely examining the extensive testimonies of the participants in the accident, Harry Collins and Trevor Pinch. A discussion with Trevor Pinch (1998) based on this research raises several questions. To avoid any misunderstanding, it should be noted that Morton Thiokol and NASA engineers were not aware of the risks surrounding the joint. In fact, they are well aware of the problem and have been dealing with it for several years. However, as pointed out by Vaughan et al., a) they are not looking for absolute security, but rather "acceptable" solutions. In other words, complete sealing requires infinite time and cost, and even if it is achieved, the stability and safety of the entire system, without integration with other parts, cannot necessarily be guaranteed. Generally speaking, technology always contains some incompleteness, because it depends on various factors and abnormalities that appear in the situation. However, determining which of these factors or deviations are safe at that time can only be done with experience and knowledge. In the above case, the NASA engineer and Morton Thiokol had a shared belief based in part on a shared "horizon" of knowledge and decided to "go ahead" with the launch because the impact of the O-ring damage was within the feasible range, due to redundancy. Furthermore, b) by definition is

122

K. you

Technical opinions of engineers are normal, and from the perspective of this intellectual horizon, these opposing opinions are usually "winners".Boisjoly and others could not provide convincing information about the reduction of elasticity of the firing at low temperatures;Moreover, their data analysis was full of contradictions.For example, Morton Thiokol and NASA engineers concluded that the claims of Boisyly and others were not substantiated with enough data.In other words, their entry did not have the necessary validity to cancel the decision under the conditions needed for technical debate in NASA.Based on the above facts, the description in the textbook is an extremely simplified claim, and retrospectively seems to be judged only from the failure perspective.First, Morton Thiokol and NASA engineers concluded that, despite its uncertainty, the risk that represents the combination is acceptable.Their administrative decisions are based on the rules, ie they do not violate the rules.It can be said that the decisions on launch are the result of strictly technical discussions (cf. Vaughan, 1996, 336).Second, there is no absolute standard regarding the validity of technical knowledge, that is, the validity of technical knowledge depends on the situation.In other words, technical knowledge exists in nature.Third, while the "technical culture" shared by engineers determines the nature of engineering discussions about the validity of the engineering knowledge, this engineering or technical culture is often taken for granted, regardless of bias..As the basic cognitive layer, certain systems of experienced tacit (and explicit) knowledge are part of this culture, and based on this technical culture, engineers agree on acceptability.Following the mark, Vaughan stated that "the decision to launch is not the result of poor manager's behavior, but a tragic error caused by structural factors that affect decisions" (Vaughan, 1996, p. 335).It is clear, however, that these "structural factors" do not refer to factors relating to the physical structure of the shuttle;They prefer to refer to the factors related to NASA organizational culture.As can be seen from the top discussion, a job with Challenger can initially seem as an ethical problem for engineers, but at its core is the correctness of engineering culture.1 1 M. Davis, for example, calls for "bad behavior" (self -deception) in the manner of R. Lunda, Vice President of Engineering in Morton Thiocol.Lund initially supported Boisjoly's attitude.However, during the gathering before the launch, he changed his mind to the advice of Morton Thiokol of the elder Vice President J. Mason: "It's time to take off your engineering cap and put your control cap" (Davis, 1989).However, in his detailed analysis, Vaughan, using the evidence presented at the gathering by Vice President Thiokol J. Kilminster and others, describes Mason's decision as a typical case in which technical disagreements do not manage to bring to consensitive data to be resolved... "Someone has to collect information on both sides and bring a judgment."(Vaughan, 1996, 315 ff.).If so, Luddova would have to be seen as an act of ignoring his loyalty to the engineering and his replacement of management logic, despite Lundovo's extremely difficult position in every way.On this basis, it could be said that it is not a personal morality, but a structure.

Design culture and acceptable risk

123

Organize an accident

This determination of risk acceptability based on technical culture is typical of technology in general. In other words, it is not specific to technologies that are associated with high risk and uncertainty, as was the case with the Space Shuttle Challenger, nor to the technology design process. In fact, cultural or experiential characteristics are fundamental characteristics of technical knowledge. A very similar situation was observed in more mature technologies and in the management and operation of technical systems. In these cases, cultural decisions are not about technical discussions and computing, but about real relationships between people and artifacts. Most importantly, embodied tacit knowledge plays an important role in these situations. For example, in aircraft cockpits, large control devices were considered obsolete in the past. However, during take-offs, landings and emergencies, having several people around is important to manage the situation and share the burden of making the right decision. For example, in large controls, the pilot's action to lower the gear stick is subconsciously noticed by the first officer, who is informed by the first officer that the pilot is in control of the aircraft. This "situational awareness" apparently helps develop natural pilot-copilot communication. In this example, the mechanical control acts as a message medium; therefore, the synchronization of intersubjective communication and actions through mechanical media, training, and teamwork enables the smooth functioning of the entire system (Norman, 1993, 139 ff). This case shows that the human aspects of technological systems that are dormant under normal circumstances become apparent during disasters. In current engineering practice, it is generally accepted that human involvement in mechanical systems leads to human error; therefore, it is best to have as little human intervention as possible. On the contrary, it is inseparable from people to solve problems and errors that often occur. In a sense, people use artifacts and each other as extensions of their body of knowledge, or rather their own bodies. You might even suggest that technical systems are created through human-device interaction (see Hutchins, 1995; Norman, 1993). Therefore, machine automation does not increase the safety and reliability of artifact systems when increased workload or decreased skill adversely affects human reliability. Lisanne Bainbridge calls this situation "the irony of automation" (Bainbridge, 1987). People design, manufacture and operate complex systems. So, when a major accident occurs, the person who made the mistake is often held responsible. Engineering ethics and self-awareness as professionals are believed to derive from them, although these ethics and the types of behavior they embody are those of people acting rationally in pursuit of optimality (see Renn et al., 2001). However, the problem now is that the vast majority of people

124

K. you

Knowledge has become routine, and even if it used to be accompanied by careful consideration, it is no longer considered such.However, the action based on the knowledge that is "at hand" (Schutz, 1970);fails to identify "different" or disembodied subjects.Furthermore, it is difficult to deal with this knowledge;This is because it cannot be aimed at this way without taking a retrospective perspective by asking "why" (Schutz, 1970).This knowledge allows the system to be stable and reliable.It is also full of the possibility of reducing system reliability in some aspects such as the safety and quality of the product.engineering culture.In this context, James Rede identifies "fundamental conditions" in organizations that lead to errors, such as the inappropriateness of the design, that is, the lack of taking into account human factors and insufficient orientation;Thus, he has the notion of "organizational accidents" that (Reason, 1997) and the problem here is the improvement of culture and organization, therefore the nature of culture, that is, the nature of the embodied knowledge and appropriate design, organization and system, in the next section.

Deliver

Let's go back to an example of a challenger accident.Regarding the decision on the launch, Collins and Pinchblock watched only well-known scenarios in which "one opinion wins and the other loses".Engineers "reviewed all available evidence, used the best technical standards and gave recommendations" (Collins and Pinch 1998, 55).However, based on the description, the above situation cannot be concluded whether the discussion was obtained or lost.Such a discussion is just a matter of synthesis and relativism.As for determining, which is correct, which is wrong, they mentioned that the discussion must further examine the situation.As mentioned earlier, Vaughan spotted "standardization of deviant behavior" in structural factors leading to accidents.In the event of a Challerger accident, there was no reasonable violation.In contrast, activities that can be considered natural in the organization are the cause of accidents.In this case, there is little space for recognition of such deviations due to the criteria of the terms in question that must meet the application engineer.However, this encourages clear situations.That is why we can enumerate on normativity in technological culture.From the upper contradictory situation, it is evident that there is no need to come and follow the "rules" and regulations in order for society to improve.For the correct application of rules and regulations, it is important to understand their interpretation in advance;This is because the rules itself do not determine their applicability to the situation.In addition, strong space of operation will lead to laws and regulations that strive for security

Design culture and acceptable risk

125

A person who often commits crimes. Therefore, contrary to intention, this may lead to increased risk (Reason, 1997, 50). Assuming that the above arguments are true, the next question to be considered is whether the parties exercised "due care". However, questions will immediately arise about what it means to be diligent. In the case of the Challenger accident, we can identify a problem with the burden of proof. NASA engineers are generally conservative, as always, and continue to seek safety certifications for Morton Thiokol; it emphasizes the usability of the design. In contrast, the situation was reversed when Boisjoly and others raised concerns before launch and were asked by NASA to prove the existence of a hazard. What suspicion is justified for this "risk" that has not yet had an impact, what evidence should be sought in this case, what decision should be made according to the given rules, so these questions deserve due attention. This situation is therefore accompanied by normative requirements that go beyond the specific situation. We will not detail individual improvements here. However, when due diligence is often required, in addition to focusing on what constitutes due diligence, it is also crucial to determine who is making the decision. For example, with regard to product reliability, the question is whether the design should be determined by engineers with specialized knowledge in a rigorous application method without being held responsible for the results, leaving consumers to bear the costs (Velasquez, 2005, 110). If so, this is just one form of paternalism. We therefore extend the scope of the discussion to "technology in culture", exploring the commonality of technology within it, taking into account the design environment.

Historic design features

In general, design can be considered a process of determining the target function and proposing the structure of these functions. Target orientation is considered a characteristic of technical knowledge. However, at the same time, it shows that the technology is involved in a wider social environment, such as the market or personal customers. In this case, the relationship between society and design can still be considered a solution between the relationship between social needs and the best needs. This vision should not be understood from a narrow perspective. Given the safety and environmental concerns, the nature of social and cultural supervision has extended to the entire design process, that is, it is not limited to direct functions, but also includes other functional things and secondary functions. Let's take the case of the Ford Pinto as an example. Although it is usually representative in technical ethics manuals, this case shows that uncertainty and incomplete assessment of technology are beyond value

126

K. you

narrow technology.This condition is usually explained as follows.In the late 1970s, Pinto, a compact car designed by Ford, appeared in a short time to compete with compact models of competitors.With a style on the forehead, the car has a potential design error: in the collision, the fuel tank could crack if you hit it in the back.Although Ford could have made improvements for only $ 11 per car, the company was criticized for continuing to produce cars based on its cost analysis and use until new regulations became required in 1978.Most descriptions in the manual attribute the Ford's approach to "primarily profit" based on its cost analysis and benefit.However, as some authors pointed out, although Ford's analysis is wrongly formulated, it is unclear whether this analysis is actually the primary cause of its behavior or incomplete behavior (Birsch, 1994).2 Although this is a specific question beyond the scope of this chapter, I would like to use this example to draw attention to the definition of "security".Of course, it is not guaranteed that the car is completely safe in itself;Moreover, the same level of security from a compact car as a traditional large car cannot be expected.Also, Ford Pinto would not break security regulations at the time (although some see it as a gray zone).However, as Richard Degeorge also pointed out, Ford was not attacked because of these facts, but because, despite the existence of technical solutions, the company neglected the risk that should otherwise be avoided, namely exploding the fuel tank (De Georg, E 1994).In addition, the authors indicate the context of a shift in the perception of traffic accidents from the driver's responsibility on. Manufacturers are responsible for providing appropriate security (Saito, 2005).Considering these points, it is believed that Ford has partially reacted because the company did not believe that people would be willing to pay to remove this risk and could not anticipate the future consequences of ignoring this readiness (Harris et al., 1995).I elaborate this point in my debate about the study of technology history.If the above discussion is an accurate view of the situation, then the definition of "safe" will not be determined primarily by technology, but several other factors, such as the price and human trust and desire.Such social decisions are embedded in design.So, if we define the car as a form of public transport, an assessment of which objects are technically valuable and what risks are based on this definition.According to De George's words, the decision to accept the risk "is not only a technical decision", but "is also a managerial decision, or perhaps more precisely a social decision" (1994, 186).

The validity and scope of risk assessments require careful analysis. This is an exhaustive task and will not be performed here.

Design culture and acceptable risk

127

Other features and values of technology can be suggested. Therefore, the specific social background is an aspect of engineering design; however, in most cases it is taken for granted and is often overlooked. Only in the case of environmental change or opposition, such as Ford Ping Tuo, does this social or political nature usually become apparent; and then the design will be changed and incorporated into the new environment. It is important to note that this design change is not carried out from the perspective of functionalism. The design change occurs in the public field, not in the narrow economic field. In this field, the function should be effectively adapted according to the needs of the market or customers. Design without a cabin is another noticeable example of this discussion. In the early days, the Design of people who are not recorded achieved the Civil Rights Movement as an obstacle to the participation of people with disabilities in society. .From a thinking perspective, we can clearly see the discriminatory structure implied in the early draft, and the new draft includes the value of justice. This transformation clearly reveals the political nature of engineering design. Design is also a historical entity developed by many people, including engineers, managers and lay people.

Unexpected results and public nature

As mentioned in the previous section, design can be viewed as a process of capturing an objective function. Given that technological design embodies social needs and relationships, and that it creates a new social order (see example above),3 it can be said that the design of artifacts simultaneously means designing and defining the order of our world. In a sense, it can be compared to a "legislative act" (Winner, 1986, 29). However, the power of this "legislation" is limited because means and ends cannot be assumed to be completely predictable or analytically separate. We should also note that identifying a goal with "designer intent" and designing a process to implement that design is problematic. As can be seen from the above discussion, this is because the items that are set as goal dimensions, and what is emphasized in the design process, and what is considered secondary, are determined by culture or conventional knowledge, which are generally held to be true. .. This is closely related to the uncertainty and incompleteness of assessment techniques. 3 The issue of technical mediation requires a separate study and is beyond the scope of this chapter. For an example from classical literature, see E. Cassirer (1985). "Instruments function in the realm of objects in the same way as they do in the realm of logic: it is, so to speak, an objective concept (gegenständliche Anschauung), not a 'termimus medicus' in mere thought" (ibid. ... , 61).

128

K. you

First of all, apart from the direct expected goals, there may be potential secondary intentions that will lead to unexpected results. For example, when a designer accidentally designs an artificial product that is mainly designed for people who are not available, it can be dangerous for people with disabilities, so it will cause them to be discriminated against. Second, the result of technology is not the main thing; on the contrary, they are accompanied by a myriad of effects and side effects. Technology exceeds the designer's intent, leading to unexpected and unpredictable products. In Tenner's words, "Anti-Bite" (1996). The result of technology is that in the context of risk analysis, the result of technology is often promoted to "risk weighing", that is, the possibility of gender and weight. Potential risks replace it and decide whether to take action. However, the impact of the evaluation can only be determined against the background of culture and social .Third, background changes are involved in the design and significance of this technology as a result of the transformation of lifestyles caused by technology and other factors. As Don Ihde has said, all technologies have doubled because they are "obfuscated, multistable capabilities" (1999, p. 44), which reflects the designer's intention to surpass. He is on this phenomenon "Designer fallacy", which is a phenomenon of deliberate fallacy in the literature. Such cases lead to changes in evaluation standards related to risky and technical characteristics. Therefore, the question is: Who should be responsible for this decision? Since no one can manage the uncertainty of technology, what kind of overall benefits of a certain technology should not be determined by the judgment of parents, and the engineer entirely. The angle of analysis should not be limited to a limited technical perspective. In this case, engineers cannot have all the rights, responsibilities and attitudes of non-engineers. This is the reason for (1994, 94) (1994, 94). Mentioned "technical culture"; however, the existence of this experience and knowledge system means that it will become an obstacle to the participation of people who do not share the system. Therefore, we must accept that in our current society, experts monopolize technical problems. There seems to be a dominant relationship between experts and laymen. However, this culture does not can meet the facts and norms at the same time. On the one hand, experts pointed out that the layman's "perception of risk" in risk theory. In this case, experts usually refer to the "literacy" of understanding the capabilities of science and technology. This idea is that only by re-establishing knowledge we can accept it without prejudice, that is, educate the public, so that they can gain the ability to "properly" understand modern science and technology. On the other hand, if the obstacle is ignored,

Design culture and acceptable risk

129

Participation in the conversations remains at best the formality of obtaining permission.From this discussion it is clear that it is a "cultural market".In other words, due to the difference between the correlative systems of experts and non -experts, experts did not experience problems experienced by non -professors.So, first of all, what is needed is "literacy" by the engineer: literacy in terms of the ability to understand and answer lay questions.This can be called the "response" of a public engineer.In order to further illustrate this claim, I use a series of metaphors from the author's story or novel, in this case an engineer, manager, Lecco, etc. In that sense, the current main story will be the story of an engineer.Design stories must be written again because of the recognition of experts and non -professors.This means that the two are recognized in dialogue as co -author of the story, that is, as actors (responsibility) with rights and rights to answer.Trust, identity (both sides) and solidarity are based on this mutual recognition.So, it will be the basis for improving the technological culture, or what type of design culture you can call.

in conclusion

We can distinguish between "culture in technology" and technology as social and cultural activities by focusing on "acceptability". In general, the history of technology is not only a history of creation or choice, but also a history of being first and forgetting. Various decisions, interpretations and evaluations are embedded in the history of technology, are deposited and taken for granted. In a certain sense, technology is a story told by many, even laymen. Therefore, technical activities are based on this history. For example, the reliability of technology depends on the reliability of technical decisions and ultimately on the existence of a reliable technological culture. So, it depends on the culture and social relations in the organization. The same can be said about risk. We will discuss this issue at length in the future, however, with regard to the ethics of risk, we can point out that the ethics of individual engineers and the ethical rules of the engineering profession are not the only factories, although not incidental. When designing an artifact, an engineer can expect a number of effects, side effects, and possible effects. In this case, in order to recognize that engineers are qualified employees, it is absolutely necessary that they understand and answer layman's questions. In this sense, responsibility is the basis of morality. Based on this approach, we can move beyond the dichotomy of scientifically quantified risk, layman's bias and cultural risk relativism. So far we have emphasized "technological culture" and "cultural technology". However, this does not mean that we

130

K. you

You should not continue to observe from the perspective of description. Follow it every step.

Reference Bainbridge, L., 1987, Ironies of Automation, in: New Technology and Human Error, J. Rasmussen, K. Duncan, J. Leplat, eds. Wiley, Chichester. 1994, Product safety, benefit analysis and the Ford Pinto Cases Included in: The Ford Pinto Case, D. Birsch and JH Fielder, New York State University Press and State State Albany.Cassier, E., 1985, Form und Technik, In: Simbol , Technik, Sprache, W. Orth, Ed., Felix Meiner, Verlag, Hamburg (originally published 1933).Collins, H. and Pinch, T., 1998, The Golem as a Whole, Cambridge Up, Cambridge.Davis, M ., 1989, Explaining misconduct, J. Social Phil.20 (1 & 2): 74-90. De George, R. T., 1994, The moral responsibility of engineers in large organizations: The Pinto cases, in: The Ford Pinto Case , D. Birsch and JH Fielder, New York State University Press, New York State Albany.Ferguson, ES, 1992, Engineering and the Mind's Eye, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.Harris, C., Pricehard, M. and Rabins , M., 1995, Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA.Hutchins, E., 1995, How Can a Cockpit Remember Its Speed?, Cogn.znanost.19 (2): 265-283.Ihde, D., 1999, Issues in Technology and Prediction, AI & Soc.13: 44-51.Norman, D.A., 1993, The Things That Make Us Smart, Perseus Books, Reading, Ma. Renn, O., Jaeger, C.C., Rosa, E.A. and Webler, T., 2001. The rational actor in risk theory Yu: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk: Modern Risk. , edited by MJ Cohen, Palgrave, London.Razlog, J., 1997, Organize Accident Risk Management, Hampe Ashgate District.Saito, N., 2005, What is Technical Literacy?(Japanese), Talk Agency, Tokyo.Schutz, A., 1970, Reflections on the Problem of Relevance, R. M. Zaner, ED., Yale Up, New Haven. Shrader-Frechette, K., 1994, scientific research ethics, Rowman & LittleField, waves, waves, waves, waves Shigetton.Tenner, E., 1996, Why things bite, vintage books, New York.Velasquez , M.G., 2005, The ethics of consumer production, in: Commercial ethics, vol.3, F. Allhoff and A. Vaidya, eds., Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. Vaughan, D., 1996, Challenger initiated decision, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Winner, L., 1986., The Whale and the Reactor, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Alienation, Competition, and Exclusivity Paul B. Thompson's Cost-Based Three Institutional Factors

The social sciences of the twentieth century provided deep analyzes of formal and informal institutions at many levels, but philosophers and experts in the design area still have to use these analyzes to understand the implications of technological transformations of the physical world.Three ideas from institutional theories are particularly relevant to technological changes.Release the exclusion costs to prevent others from appropriating or interfering with someone's use or removal of objects or means.Sustainability refers to the ability to obtain goods or resources from the environment so that they can be used in exchange relationships.Competition refers to the degree and nature of compatibility among different applications of goods.These concepts allow us to ask the questions of Herbert Marcuse and Langdon in a more focused way: whether technology is partly responsible for the form of our institutions and whether institutional changes in legal and customary spheres be influenced by philosophical criticism and democratic leadership, why the technology would not be equally criticaland guided?In particular, why do technical designers do not take into account factors such as the price of exclusion, alienation and competition when considering alternative designs?Why are technology developers not socially and politically responsible for the consequences of changes in the cost of alienation, competition or exclusion?

Meaning and institutional change

Institutions are routine practices or patterns of human activity that can describe the dominance acts.Formal institutions are those articulated as rules, which copy and maintain organized social entities, especially countries.Law and public policy.Informal institutions are based on

PB Thompson, Michigan State

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

131

132

PB Thompson

Common knowledge, tradition and culture.They reproduce through legends, legends, apprenticeships, imitations and perhaps various common experiences.Their imposing mechanisms may include approval, praise, avoiding or involvement in the group, but primarily consist of the way they provide a framework within which they successfully negotiate the most basic tasks of social life (Commons, 1931).Despite its ambiguity, this simple set of definition provides the basis for the interpretation of the last millennium of European history as formal institutions of law and policies that gradually replace informal.Enlightenment and early modern philosophers were deeply involved in this permutation, often claiming that the formal institutions were superior to their articulation, wide application and critical evaluation.A rule that cannot be articulated cannot be criticized or justified, let alone bring civil authorities, although properly socialized people can be reliably adhered to.Perhaps the philosophical preference for arguments, arguments and oral discussions states that they believe that the formal institutions are inherently rational, or we should say, as C. B. Macpherson (1962) claims that these interests are the most consistent development of ownership and state power.Philosophers who advocate an explicit, rational assessment of the rules of society are naturally joined.For the present purposes, it is important to notice a fundamental and mainly implicit connection between formal institutions based on the country and the modern conceptualization of reason and rights.The tendency of philosophy by formal institutions weakened during the period of romanticism, when philosophy began to crave the lost sense of belonging and solidarity of the community.In 1897, German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnie theorized modernization as a transition from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft, while in 1914 Max Weber described it as a process of rationalization to increasingly bureaucratic decision -making.Weber and Tones (and, of course, Marx) provide a background for the first wave of German philosophy of technology in the 20th century, an intellectual movement involving Martin Heidegger, Theodora Adorn and Herbert Marcoux Cyprus and other various characters.Despite their often contradictory political orientations, all these thinkers challenged prejudices in favor of rationality and closely associated with technology and industrialization, which often seemed to equate them with specific concepts of scientific methods.The often mentioned weakness of this approach is that little attention is paid to mechanisms that connect technology to industrialization processes.Ironically, focusing so much on the scientific rationality and companionship of the capital to which Macpherson points out, it seems that these thinkers make every important work look philosophically.There is not much to talk about real designers.Unlike these philosophers, the British historian E. P. Thompson claimed that many changes that led to industrialization occurred at a physical level.These include the separation of the usual food from the conditions under which it is produced, distributed and consumed so that the food can be traded as goods.Before the 18th century, British fields like England were breeding cereals

Transfer, competition and enforcement costs

133

Common property of the parish. An elaborate system of informal concessions regulated the share to which each parishioner was entitled and the tasks such as harvesting, grinding or baking that each had to perform. However, as roads and carts improved, farmers who milled and bagged grain saw opportunities to sell their grain in other villages or where prices were best, neglecting the informal assessment and hoarding that traditional practices precluded from organizing. food distribution. How should we interpret this situation? Do farmers have the right to the best price for their grain or is it the common property of the villagers? Natural law philosophy tends to note several important things about grains. First, farmers who first own grain fields through sowing and harvesting can easily track their location and use, and grain can easily change hands through sale or donation. Also, once consumed, the grains are gone. It cannot be eaten by another person. Natural law theorists latched onto these natural characteristics of grain and saw a sack of grain as something that naturally corresponded to property rights, a formal institution sanctioned by state authority. For example, natural law theorists recognized farmers' ownership rights over grain and redefined a bag of grain as a commodity, replacing the informal institutions of law and fair societies with formal state-sanctioned institutions of commodity exchange (Thompson, 1971). Thompson's analysis indicates both the stability of the material world and the character of technological transformation: the fact that grain is consumed in use remains stable, but grain becomes portable and exchangeable only by becoming portable, that is, by technological change. In creating a theoretical basis for private property, natural law philosophers anchored themselves to a particular configuration of these material properties and clothed them with legal concepts supported by state power. However, before roads and carts, the "natural" state of affairs could have looked quite different, and a different set-up configuration could have been chosen as suitable by any reasonable person. Today's philosophy of technology can draw many lessons from Thompson's history of social institutions, but the most relevant point for design philosophy is that the technological changes brought about by these decades of upheaval require the creation of portable goods, whose production and distribution can be controlled. Prior to the work of those who designed and managed England's country roads and carriageways, the 'natural' configuration of crops supported a de facto status of public property imposed by informal norms. Following this work, the "natural" distribution of food supported farmers' private property claims that required official state approval and enforcement. Although those who designed late medieval European carriages and roads certainly did not consider how they would affect the physical properties of barley, wheat, and rye, their work changed the negotiability, price of exclusivity, and competitiveness of these products. Therefore, understanding the link between engineering design and institutional change requires a better understanding of the costs of alienation, competition and exclusion.

134

PB Thompson

cute

Transferability is the degree to which a good or potential item of use can be taken from one environment or situation to be transported or used in another environment or situation. An important aspect of portability is that something owned or served by one person can easily be transferred to the property or services of another person. The right to life is described as an inalienable right because life can only be lived by the one who has it, it cannot be given or sold to anyone. Therefore, the right to life can only be exercised by a person whose life is threatened, and others cannot exercise it by depriving themselves. Alienability determines whether goods or rights can be meaningfully exchanged. As such, it is a necessary condition of all ownership, at least as the concept is understood in the natural law tradition. However, it is important to note that a significant component of sociability depends on the degree to which different objects or goods are portable or distant from each other. For Thompson's farmers, until the advent of better roads and wagons, it was difficult to separate most grain from the land areas where it was grown, creating a climate conducive to the entrenched relations of production and exchange that characterized the state of feudal society. Of course, the indivisibility of food and place is a situational rather than a metaphysical necessity. Other situational forms of inalienability include the impossibility of separating a musical or theatrical performance from the artist himself before the invention of photography and sound recording. It was also not legally possible to separate a worker's work from the parish of his birth until the legal reforms in the 18th century documented by Karl Polanyi (1944). These situational forms of inalienability can be changed, in the second case, by changing the law, and in the first by material transformation. We can assume that in almost all cases it is difficult to imagine how goods could be alienated from each other until it becomes clear that this is possible. Nowadays, traits considered inalienable to certain plants or animals can now be easily encoded in genetic sequences and transferred to completely different plants and animals by genetic engineering. In fact, these traits, or at least the genes that provide them, are completely isolated from the organism and are sold only as a license that plant or animal breeders can purchase to transfer these traits to different organisms. .Before the development of genetics, it was difficult to conceptualize the growth rate of a fish as something that could be foreign to a species or type of fish. If you want fast growing fish, you need fast growing fish. But now that growth rates have been alienated, it is now possible to buy genetic constructs to build fast-growing fish or anything that grows fast (Muir, 2004).

Transfer, competition and enforcement costs

135

confrontation

Competition is a degree to which replacement goods or use of goods are competing with each other.One way in which two alternative use of good can compete is if they are consumed during use.Eating cereals is more competitive practice because it can only be eaten once and practice exhausts the possibility of others use or other ways.Appreciating the beauty of wavy cereal fields is an invincible custom, because the cereal field can not only enjoy more people at the same time, but can be appreciated several times.The term competition can also be used to describe the relationship between two or more goods that can be replaced with each other and thus enter into competition in market relations.For example, beans and corn can compete because both are edible, and if corn is too expensive, customers can choose beans.But beans and corn are not competition, and since you cannot use beans to make tennesse whiskey, smugglers will never sell beans on the market.So competition is situational and things are changing.Since ancient times, farmers have used seeds for sowing seeds to grow crop.Crops give more seeds that can be planted again.In this regard, the use of seed growing seeds is qualified use without competition.It does not exhaust the amount of goods available for future use, although they are good temporarily unavailable while crops are in the field.Genetic use restrictions (gurt), or so -called "terminal" genes can be used to create seeds that, when sown as a crop, no more seeds.Therefore, the Gurts transform the use of seeds to plant crops from unconcern to competitive use (Conway, 2000).Valuation and competition are key to establishing an exchange relationship because they affect the degree to which the goods are subject to the exchange process and the need for exchange.Goods that are not negotiating actually become a exchangeable goods if it is exchangeable at all.Competitive goods are exhausted by use, so they need to be purchased and supplemented before each use or can be replaced by each other, which also affects the need to obtain by exchange.Therefore, whether the exchanges are in the form of sales, gifts or gifts, exchanges are generally negotiating and competitive goods.In other words, while people could exchange views, insults and tenderness, the exchange of goods that can be negotiated and competed, such as a sack of grain, a yoke of the wheel or a day of working in the field, was a typical form of relationship.economic and social relations.

disconnection cost

A measure in which the negotiating and competitive goods accelerate social relations that characterize the trade exchange also depends on the ease of different use of goods may be limited or controlled through acquisition or appropriation.Enforcement costs are expenditure in terms of time, energy and resources

136

PB Thompson

Prevent others from obtaining a certain goods or property.Like alienation, foreclosure costs are largely determined by the physical properties of the goods used by people to whom they depend.Oxygen and vitamin D are portable and competitive products, but it is difficult to prevent people from exposing themselves to air and sunlight.In contrast, jewelry and drangulia are so easy to keep out of reach, which is why the latter are more often understood as bestsellers than the first.Objects with very high foreclosure costs are unlikely to commercially trade.Like alienation and competition, exclusivity costs are subject to changes in the context.Variable circumstances in foreclosure costs often have the form of significant manipulation involved in goods or condition in which it is located.Locks and doors are classic exclusion technologies, and better locks reduce the price of every exclusion.The cost of exclusion can also be reduced by the development of informal institutions.In many cases, a simple statement will be sufficient that certain parties have solely right to use goods.Waiting in line for a service is one of the most respected informal opportunities in Western culture and everyone admits that a person at the forefront of order has an exclusive right to be served the next.So, if the product is as follows, we can say that for the product that comes first, the cost of excluding others from that product is very low.It generally agrees that the usual recognition of this right saves everyone a lot of time and effort, and makes many daily transactions more reasonable in the cost of costs.When the usual exclusive rights are endangered, it is always possible to hire a forced power of the state to support them.Police are a powerful way of reducing the cost of foreclosure of private property of all kinds.Those who should keep or defend property may ask the police, and knowing that arrest and prison are among the possible consequences of unlawful seizure, increases the cost of theft and reduces the cost of exclusion.Laws on copyright and patents represent formal institutions that can set a forced power of the state behind different practice of exclusion, even in the lack of material assets.The drugs of the Law on Intellectual Property greatly reduce the cost of preventing others to use one's intellectual creation by harassing, intimidating, spying and other forms of self -help.The costs of transmission, competition and exclusivity are characterized by different good and entities in the world, including personal services and material things, and together determine which good and subjects become an object of exchange relationship, and are still embedded in earlier and assumed context social practice.Everything that is portable, competitive and exclusive is likely to be considered as personal or private property.It is not surprising that when goods are missing one of these three dimensions, people try to make up for it by passing the law or by changing the world in material ways.While institutional economists analyze these properties, they are engaged in the bias of economists that facilitating transactions is always a good thing.They also brought with them the bias of social scientists dealing with social practice, especially formal institutions.As such, they usually focus on legal or political reforms that will

Transfer, competition and enforcement costs

137

Reduce the exchange. However, as my illustrations are shown, technical changes and legal changes can affect the transfers costs, competition and cancel the right of the mortgage buyer, and the change can be a focus of design.

things change by design

Material dimensions of portability, competition and exclusion costs represent 'day' or natural infrastructure for informal institutional development, whether accidentally or planned, and a set of contextual conditions under which formal institutions formulate and implement.When these background conditions change accidentally or intentionally, the overall meaning of social institutions changes.All of this asks the question: if a change in the formal institutions of society is a suitable goal of political philosophy and the theories of justice, why not technological transformation of the cost of alienation, competition and exclusion?This, I think, is a sharper repetition of the questions that have been asked many times before.The one -dimensional man of Herbert Marcuse shows that the failure to undergo technical systems is as political control as a philosophical failure.The political failure is that the growing forces of capital and commercial interests dominate all forms of discourse in the industrial society, and the philosophical failure is that positivist doctrines create an epistemological space in which technical efficiency issues are viewed as "value neutral"."(Marcuse, 1966) Most people involved in design practice, Marcuse's description of technology seems too metaphysical, too much Heidegger and too unclear to be of great benefit. Langdon Winner was more successful in calling for a critical assessment of technology and technological changes by describing whatwhat he calls "Technology Composition of Society." It is a physical and organizational infrastructure that predisposes a society for certain lifestyles and political reactions Winner gives an example of its ideas, especially technical systems such as irrigation systems or electric networks that direct society according to centrally controlled hierarchical political politicalPower relationships (Winner, 1986). The trend explanation is the way these systems affect the transmission, competitiveness and costs of exclusivity to the appropriate goods that produce and distribute, water and energy. The success of the ancient centrally managed irrigation systems and modern electric networks are partly because they areReal world problems offer technological solutions, but also have the effect of converting a relatively unconcactional, exclusive expensive goods into honest.Opposite of that.Water and energy are ubiquitous in most places, but often it is not in sufficient concentration to perform certain tasks critical for mission, such as agriculture or production.In their natural state, water and energy is expensive to remove;Preventing people to approach them require a certain effort.Natural water systems such as rivers and sources also have multiple purposes

138

PB Thompson

At the same time, in this sense, they are relatively non-rival goods. While energy in the form of wood and fossil fuels or local wind and hydro is often depleted in use and naturally competitive in that sense, it is relatively specialized for the type of work it is expected to do. One provides heat and the other mechanical power, requiring more skill to repurpose them for other purposes. Therefore, in these configurations of the physical world, water and energy are relatively non-rivals. Irrigation systems and electricity networks reduce disconnection costs because they increase competition, resulting in easier central management of goods and trade than water and energy without this technological infrastructure. Moreover, both systems provided the means to separate their commodities from their local context, in the same way that wagons and roads transformed the separability of grain. Therefore portability, competition and exclusivity costs are part of what Wenner calls the socio-technical composition. These properties more clearly determine the politically important design parameters of technical systems. However, if the conceptual framework provided by institutional analysis allows us to sharpen the technical questions we want to ask, it also narrows the claims that technology needs to be questioned. First, it is clear that the specific tools and techniques used in specific situations lead to the material consequences I have illustrated, not "technology" as a metaphysical force. Second, not all of these substantive changes will reach peak political significance. Better locks are hardly a problem, since they lower the cost of locks for those who use them. That's what locks are supposed to do. Third, Marcuse's belief that there are dominant logical or technological trajectories is weakened rather than strengthened by institutional analysis. Technological change can affect transmission, competition and enforcement costs in a number of ways. Xerox copiers, computers and the Internet have increased the cost of seizing goods such as texts, recordings and images, while reducing their competitiveness. As such, these items are more difficult to inspect and look less like commercial goods. Not surprisingly, those who benefited from the old structure of the substance were quick to push for formal legislation that would restore some competition and reduce the costs they impose on eliminating what they saw as unauthorized uses. .Finally, even when factoring in costs of transmission, competition and exclusivity, the technology needs to be reassessed, and it is not clear what the answer should be. Analysts who use the term "commoditization" generally see this change as bad, but economists who talk about lower transaction costs generally see the opposite. In any case, there may be an understandable but mistaken assumption that the physical infrastructure of the world is relatively fixed, so that the processes in question always involve the manipulation of laws and policies. This hypothesis can then map shifts in the costs of alienation, competition and exclusivity to rather archaic political ideologies. Thus, "commodification" is bad because it favors capitalist or bourgeois interests, while lowering transaction costs is always good because it allows rational subjects to more successfully maximize the satisfaction of subjective preferences. Even if this is generally true of changes in formal settings (which I doubt), it is insufficient as a comprehensive analysis of changes in technology.

Transfer, competition and enforcement costs

139

A few final words for the designers

The previous debate aims to explain how technology includes technology, and these features are especially important from moral or political perspective. However, it may still be clear what they have to do with the design. In a sense, designers (those who make decisions with other authors inTo this book, those who make decisions on important features, tools or configurations of technology) have been paying attention to these characteristics for a long time. When technicians copy technical difficulties or expensive competitors products, they will affect the costs of competition and exclusion of products."In order to avoid permit costs, they respond to alienation, competition costs and rejection.These aspects are formally institutionalized by patent legislation. When the equipment producers use the "planning aging" strategy, they will provide competition between products that produce and products produced in the future.Many rather standard aspects designed by philosophers. However, some of the examples mentioned above will bring all the institutional consequences that no one provides or does not mean. What is doubtful is whether those who develop roads and cars strive to influence the ability of farmers and local villageEconomies to alienate the breeding of cereals. It is worth noting that any attempt will affect some designer institutions depends to a large extent on very specific aspects of discussed technologies and the use of its socially -economic environment. What does designers and philosophers have to have room for attention to attentionThe influence of the new configuration of new products or technical agencies. It is necessary to formulate any considerations described and estimated in this chapter economic analysis (see North, 1990) and many specific details that can only be provided by designers.lawrence Lessig in detail on how to influence how to influenceTo alienate the technical codes, and the cost of the cost of exclusion of software and the Internet is one of the best examples of recent design issues related to institutions.lessig compares the design of the Harvard University Internet architecture and the University of Chicago and shows that the Chicago system is basically built into its code.As a result, when the Harvard System administrator design allows for obstacles to certain users, this can be determined by the case (Lessig, 1999) .lessig also pointed out that the design of the cleaning protocol can somehow cross the network.The transmission of text files may differ from a mobile bit mp3 or video. In comparison with the current information industry, the system will introduce the form of competition in the system (Lessig, 2002) .lessg -O work shows that when we question the institutional meaning of technology, we must carefully study carefullythe actual meaning of specific technological changes

140

PB Thompson

It can be said that it is good or bad. Designers who want to realize their thoughts in this chapter must turn to his work. In short, a clear understanding of the costs of alienation, competition and exclusion can help designers and technology silicon families do what they want for a long time. For designers, alienation, competition, and exclusion of cost parameters are some of the most sensitive and serious elements in the history of forecasting technology. Keep in mind that such changes need to be carefully planned and the process of designing and implementing the implementation and implementation process. For philosophers, costs of alienation, competition and exclusions help us at least look at some important details when technological change occurs. She is therefore concerned with the philosophy, sociology and economics of technology integration, the costs of competition and exclusion, and to clarify some of the more obscure mechanisms associated with the security of technology and social history. The costs of eloquence, competition and exclusions also represent elements of specific technologies, such as genetic manipulation or information technology. These technologies are used as frameworks. These facilities connect the alternative network and specifications of bridges and classic technological fields. Therefore, the costs of bandwidth, competition and exclusion are the fundamental point of technical and moral norms. It is necessary to consider any attempt to identify new technical elements that need to be advised and discussed by the public.

See Commons, J. R., 1931, Institutional Economy, Am.eCon.21: 648 - 657. Conway, G., 2000, genetically modified crops: risks and promises.Nadelen.ecol.4 (1): 2.[Online] URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol4/iss1/art2/ Lessig, L., 1999, code: Law of Cibernetics, Essential Books, New York.Connect worlds to Fate of the Commons, New York, New York.Press, Boston.Muir, W., 2004, threats and benefits of GM fish, Embo report 5: 654 - 659. North, D.C., 1990, institutions, institutional changes and economic effect, Cambridge University Press, New York., K., 1944, The Great Shift: Political and Economic Payoffs in Our Time, Beacon Press, Boston (re -issued 2001).50 (February): 76–136.Winner, L., 1986 whales and reactors: in search of boundaries in technology era, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

the second part

Engineering design in the making

Design Friends Personal Robotics Design Philosophy John P. Sullins

A summary of small robotic devices start the process of home automation. Following the emotional computing movement initiated by Professor Rosalind Picard at the MIT Media Lab in 1995, robotics has also begun to follow emotional robotics, using robotics that simulate emotions and other human expressions and other human body language to help machines better understand interactions with users. . Here I will trace the evolution of this design philosophy and present the arguments, with the help of the phenomenological concept of artefacts as described in the island philosophy literature.

present

1.1

A new design of personal robots

Robots are no longer limited to pure imagination, network space or the factory workshop. The robot has found its own place in our family. This requires that the design of the machine can be adapted to the different lifestyles of all potential users. Robotics expert Cynthia Breazeal coined the word social robot to describe a robot with this ability ... a social robot can communicate with us and communicate with us, understand us in a personal way, and even establish contact with us. It is a type of robot that lives in society in a human way. We communicate with it as if it were that person and eventually we become a friend (Breazeal, 2002, 2).

(Video) Best Websites to download PhD Dissertation Thesis | How to Find Thesis l How to Find Dissertation l

This notion of robotics directly challenges the more traditional paradigms of industrial robotics and the idea that robots should do their work independently of human intermediaries. To achieve this vision, robot designers will need to pay more attention to human values, such as the beliefs and aspirations that characterize the human societies these machines are designed to enter and interact with. although

J. P. Sullins, Sonoma State University

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

143

144

JP Sullins

Workers will either be replaced or have to learn to adapt to robots coming into the factory, while the opposite is true for personal robotics to be successful. However, there is another tradition in robotics that is more receptive to the vision of social robots, which we will explore in this chapter, and it is mainly found in consumer and service robots from Asia. The robots are more playful in design, and data suggests that Asian consumers are more accepting of these machines as surrogates, pets, friends, and even surrogate family members. The technology is certainly not without serious ethical problems. We need to ask tough questions like: When is it right to replace human agents with artificial agents? Will these machines help improve human culture or further isolate us from each other? How will we program these machines to interact with us like friends?

1.2

a home robot

In 2003, the size of a small robot broke into many consumers' homes (Maney, 2003). A robot called Roomba is expected to become a sign of a new era of personal robotics technology. Robots are now designing robots to work with people in the home, which makes them a new challenge. .If individual robots are to succeed, these machines must be suitable for the human world, which requires that an understanding of human society must be central to the process of designing these machines.Earlier robotics paid no less attention to seamless integration with the human world.Since 1961, this is also the first application of the industrial robot technology of General Motors from New Jersey. Commercial robotics technology mostly consists of large scale non-humanized machines mostly on factory floors. When they make these machines, they rarely bother to adapt them to the social structure of the people who use these machines. Robot technology and automation have been criticized for negatively affecting lives. factory workers; this technology reduces their work to redundant training or endless employees (Garson, 1988). These machines are usually broken by human employees and are usually very dangerous during execution. More care is needed to design personal robots suitable for their user life and social networks. This is a new problem for the robot. Because the typical strategy for designing industrial robot technology is the user's life and social network will change to fit the Robot. The Needs of Machines for Life and Social Networks.In this chapter, I will critique some of the most important work done in the field of social robotics.In addition, I consider why we think we need robotic humanities.It is unclear to improve the lives of employees, and it is unclear whether our automation will living space to improve our life at home. Finally, I will focus on the work of robots. They object to pedestrian robots as a concept of family servants. Instead, they see them as an opportunity to design new friends and comrades.

a friend of design

2 2.1

145

Effective and emotional design examples of robot technology and the development of robot technology and personal freedom

The growth of the personal robotics market shows signs of mirroring the earlier growth of personal computers. Although this market is not as large as personal computers, it is about the same size as traditional industrial robotics and is growing rapidly. According to research by the Japan Robotics Association, the United Nations Economic Commission and the International Federation of Robotics, the market for personal and service robots is the same market as industrial robotics. By 2025, it is projected to be approximately four times the size of the industrial robotics market, or approximately $51,700,000,000, excluding military robotics and recreational robotics, which would add significantly to this amount. The dot-com boom of the 1990s and the euphoria of some major stock markets organized a decline and investment dollars in this space. Slowly but surely, more or less autonomous machines are finding their way into our lives, with expensive robotic toys like the Sony Aibo Obothonda, robotic vacuum cleaners and lawnmowers, all the way to the new series of robotic weapon platforms currently in use around the world. Middle East (Aprberts, 2004). One of the most interesting developments in robotics is the creation of robot-like companions designed to meet the emotional needs of children, the elderly, and even young lovers. These robots are mostly designed by Korean and Japanese companies and research centers, and these companies are very interested in making machines that are more than just devices: they are interested in creating our future friends.

2.2

Design paradigms in personal robotics

We see how two different design paradigms appear in the growing personal robotics industry.For the purpose of discussing, I will call them "effective" and "emotional" design paradigm.For example, robotic companies in the US and Europe are focused primarily on robotic vacuum cleaner, mower and

Data Takeover: (http://www.robonexus.com/roboticamarket.htm). RoboneXus is a stock market for consumers (http://wwwwww.robonexus.com/index.html), while Robobusiness is for industry (http : //www.robeevent.com/) .2

146

JP Sullins

Weapon platform. Japanese and Korean companies are pursuing more interesting or higher types of robotics technology to create smart machines, animals, puppets and humanoid robots. Sony, Honda and Hitachi have created extremely expensive humanoid robot mascots that dance in trade shows and commercials and impress audiences .Effective design here refers to tools or equipment intended to automate some previous human activities.Effective design in robotics is a design strategy that attempts to remove tasks from the human environment and entrust it to robot technology. Robotics can solve problems with little or no human guidance. Robots have effectively taken over a task that is too mundane, dirty, dangerous or disgusting without abandoning human beings. An example of effective robot design is a robot cleaner. Emotional design tries to deeply embed the robot in the world of interacting humans. with them. These machines aim to evoke or even "experience" emotions in order to better connect with human users. This is an interesting idea. They are two of the most radical works to date in robotics. We will focus on this design strategy in this chapter. In Sections 4 and 5, we will check out some examples of the technology and examine some of the motivations for engineers to work on these machines. If the difference between efficient and emotional robot design can be explained by cultural diversity, that is too simple, as we will see that some great researchers in the West have made many breakthroughs in the emotional design paradigm. The world is firmly building factory robots in the Efficient Paradigm of Robot Technology. However, the truth is that friendly and playful robot designs are more likely to be accepted by consumers. Before we examine some of the interesting emotional robots that have been built, let's review some insights that influence robot motion design towards emotional robots.

3 3.1

Important factors in designing robots for emotional robotics and social psychology

Takayuki Kanda, a roboticist at the Senior Telecommunications Institute for the Institute of Telecommunications and Communications Laboratory (ATR), collaborated with other researchers to study the psychological and sociological factors observed in the human-robot interaction process. They pointed out: "[f]or robots that work in human society are the most important issues of human beings" (Kanda et al., 2001). They added that in order to create a robot that can evoke a positive emotional response from human users, robots must understand human psychology and group dynamics in order to be able to communicate more fully with people around yourself.

a friend of design

147

Takayuki Kanda's ATR lab built a robot called "Robovie" and studied its interaction with human subjects. The Robovie has a vaguely humanoid shape with a head, arms, torso, and wheeled frame. It also comes with an antenna that tracks Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags that have a backup for tag processing. This allows the robot to easily recognize the different people it comes into contact with. ATR researchers believe that only robots are considered intelligent by their operators if they perform actions and express their ability to function in a natural and human way (Kanda et al., 2001). For example, the robot based on its tin-related movements" (Kanda et al., 2001). The ATR researchers had the robot form relationships with nine out of five subjects, each of whom had to fill out a questionnaire. The subjects. In twenty-eight pairs of opposite robots were rated on a seven-point scale between features such as friendliness, exciting mood, intelligent heart, etc. Impressions of test subjects (Kanda et al., 2001) In a series of other experiments, the ATR Laboratory for Intelligent Robotics and communication Robovie was brought to elementary schools for long-term interaction with students in classrooms (Kanda et al., 2004; Kanda and Ishiguro, 2005). The robot could perform about 70 behaviors with students, including simple games, telling secrets, petting and kissing and making other friendly gestures to behave with students in a moderate way Takayuki Kanda and Hiroshi Ishiguro managed to design a robot that will hold a simple conversation, can speak three hundred sentences and understand fifty words (Kanda and Ishiguro, 2005). The design turned out to be so much fun that some children interacted with the robot for a long time. In one experiment, a robot was gradually programmed to post more about itself based on the time students spent with the "Secret" robot's information. Behavior with students (Kanda et al., 2004). Students wear name tags using RFID channels so the robot can know who to communicate with. Thanks to this position, Robovie can keep up with the number and duration of interactions with different students time, and attempts to decentralize the friendships that exist between students in the class, which is somewhat successful (Kanda et al., Kanda et al. 2004). The ATR lab will eventually create a robot that can interact in a friendly way Communicate with students and help teach children in the classroom while building relationships with students and: "...help keep the classroom safe, for example by regulating bullying questions, stopping fights among children and their protection from intrusion. Violation of emotional robotics" (Kanda and Ishiguro, 2005). Takayuki Kanda and his researchers have discovered many interesting things about the design of emotional robotics. Most importantly, the data they collected showed that both adults and children were willing to put aside their skepticism and attribute a genuine sense of intelligence and friendliness to these machines.

148

JP Sullins

Even at the modest levels of behavior possible with today's technology (Kanda and Ishiguro, 2005; Kanda et al., 2004). They also found that the appearance of the robot is important and that responses to the robot change when the robot changes appearance, even if the underlying programmed behavior remains unchanged (Kanda et al., 2004).

3.2 Channeling emotions through the study of anthropomorphism in the social psychology of human-robot interaction Human-robot interaction, as we saw in the previous section, has inspired other roboticists to try to use people's natural psychological tendencies to design emotional robots. It seems that we all tend to anthropomorphize objects in our environment, a fact that could make the design of emotional robots much easier. For example, Daniel Dennett has written persuasively about "as if" intentionality, we often find it useful to engage with the things we interact with if they have genuine intentions (Dennett, 1996). This trend seems to extend to the emotional realm as well. When it comes to emotional robots, it seems that humans are willing to act with the robot if it really prefers them, even though the engineers who built the machines would never be willing to attribute those emotions to the machine, because they know what synthetics are used to simulate the machine's emotion Skill. We pushed this idea philosophically and wondered that once we had a good understanding of neuroscience, maybe our so-called "real" emotions might not become the AS-IF types Dennett described. But let's talk about that another day. What is important to our discussion of emotional robot design is that this technique works and should be used to design these machines. However, it is important not to push this psychological tendency too far. People are willing to attribute skills to machines without machines, but only to a certain extent. Brian Duffy Europe of the MIT Media Lab reminds us that we don't have to try to build humans who won't ultimately be convincing, but that we have robots that must balance, "...the driving qualities of anthropomorphism and their inherent advantage as machines, rather than seeing it as lack, will lead to their success" (Duffy, 2003). In other words, successful emotional robots will be machines that are designed to do what machines do best, but embed the machine into the user's lifeworld in a way that matches the user's natural anthropomorphic tendencies. This means that emotional robots are at their best when they evoke our innate human tendencies to impart personality to the objects around us, making it easier to interact with technology. Roboticist Mashahiro Mori described an interesting psychological barrier that roboticists must contend with, which he called the "uncanny valley" (Mori, 1970). The uncanny valley is revealed through the graphic representation of human likeness and familiarity, since machines are more similar to humans in appearance and function, this evokes a more positive emotional familiarity. But Mori claims that after certain

a friend of design

149

Noting that machines will be more human-like in appearance and function, but that resemblance will be considered unusual and undesirable until machines reach very high levels of human-likeness, he says that proximity will again increase the horror of human-machine interaction. the area of strangeness between the first and second peaks of positive familiarity (Mori, 1970). Sen suggests that roboticists are better off designing robots that sit firmly on the first peak before the uncanny valley; they are supposed to be human in some respects, but clearly machines in others. That way, they are non-threatening and people will enjoy interacting with them. This is a good design principle if we want to build machines that improve, not destroy, the human environment. In the following sections, we will look at how roboticists in Japan, Europe, and the United States have considered approaches to the design of emotional robots that take into account the ideas and concepts discussed above.

4 Japan's emotional robot design 4.1 has become a real nuclear boy from Japan. Since the war, humanoid robots have been a staple of the toy design industry and television movies. Tesuwan Atom (or Iron Arms as sold by Tongmu in the West), like kind, loyal and heroic little robot boys, are introduced to the world in a popular anime series starting in 1963. years, helping to create Help the faces of people. This interpretation of robots is very different from the typical robot master in Western science fiction novels, and the latter uses it since playing R.U.R. The first mention of robots was mentioned. As long as the latest Blockbuster treats robots as menial work, they will end up being punished in order to punished their specialized human owners. Of course, this darkest robotic concept can also be found in some sci-fi stories in Asia. Friendly robots are not a lack of people in the West, but there is an obvious trend in general. This friendly view of robot technology may be based on the technical relationship between Japanese culture and Western culture. One theory believes that since traditional Japanese culture believes that everything has a spiritual essence, including and life objects, it is more likely that they will not worry about giving the actual realism of the machine. Kaheyama, 2004; Perkowitz, 2004).The West is deeply influenced by the materialism/dual theory debate and it is more difficult to understand the concept of emotional relationships with a machine. and Jews may consider robot building a certain abnormal secondary creation or ultimate carving, Buddhism is

150

JP Sullins

The Buddha-Nature of the Creator, roboticist and Buddhist scholar Masahiro Mori argues in his book Buddha in Robots: A Robot Engineer's Reflections on Science and Religion: ...If man appears to be created out of the void, he is therefore man, Alchemy must also be created in emptiness, and must also partake of the Buddha nature, just like the stones and trees around us. In particular, I myself was created by the Buddha, so the machines and robots that I design must also be created by the Buddha (Mori, 1981, 179).

Mori goes on to argue that it is indeed possible to recognize the Buddha nature in a robot and have some sort of spiritual connection with the machine, one manifestation of the Buddha nature into another. These cultural values are likely to explicitly or implicitly influence the design of Japanese and other Easterners' personal robots. As philosopher Andrew Feenberg has shown, different societies and communities will produce different alternative expressions to dominant technological paradigms (Feenberg, 1995). Therefore, we can expect that attitudes towards robotics will vary considerably between cultures. As an article in Nikkei Newswire reported, "For Japanese people, the distinction between 'self and others' and 'humans and robots' is blurred," said Norihiro, director of the Laboratory for Intelligent Robotics and Communication in Kyoto. The institute studies the coexistence of humans and robots, said Hagita. "This flexible sensibility has helped create a culture of sharing different jobs and experiences with robots" (Nikkei Newswire, January 2005).

Karl Macdorman, researcher in the Osak robotics lab, made another assumption to explain why the Japanese were particularly sought to create a personal and service robot (2005). He said that, since Japanese culture has many social norms about good interpersonal relationships, thisSpecifications can be very strenuous and difficult to maintain, so interaction with machines is better than interaction with human compatriots. It is impossible to use a phrase or inappropriate gesture to embarrass the robot, so this is a small interaction.True, because traditional cultural tendencies that have spiritual theory about all things will strengthen the behavior of MCC Moremia. If the relationship with other people is very difficult to be culturally, and it is easy for a person to feel affection for the robot, then the friendship between MCD Moreman and others found onRobot on Japanese normally.

4.2

someone cares about me

More and more people are living longer, which is starting to put pressure on healthcare providers. This pressure is particularly pronounced in Japan, where the older generations are outnumbered by the younger ones. As the world leader in robotics, the Japanese began using robots to solve this problem (Biever, 2004). We hope that robotic devices will one day provide assistance, supervision and companionship to older adults who do not have access to these things from family or other sources.

a friend of design

151

Many robots have been completed, trying to meet the different needs of this crowd, and some have even achieved some success. Looking back at some successful robot designs so far, it is useful. Paro is a robot seal baby. It has soft white fur and big eyes. and a cute little nose, it looks like an inconspicuous stuffed animal (Horyak, 2002). But under the white sanitary fur is a series of complex sensors and actuators. They make Paro react in interesting and exciting ways. Some people talk about it or touch its fur. Paro even works according to the day and night rhythm of mimicking the natural sleep-wake cycle. Paro is used for robotic treatment, robots are taken to nursing homes, and elderly people get a chance to interact with it. hug and hug like real animals and talk to him like a child, and the robot will respond with gentle movements and sounds. Surprisingly, most participants found the interaction with the machine convincing, and some dementia patients even found it difficult to understand that Paro is just a machine (Japan Economic News Line, 2005). Faced with a monotonous institutional life, watching television or interacting with robots, many elderly people have found that one choice is the most compelling. Another problem facing the elderly in Japan is that the number of children in fallen to the ground. This fact, together with the death of a large family, means that many elderly people cannot communicate, Yumel created a small robot doll."The Yumel doll looks like a boy, the vocabulary is 1,200 phrases, and it is advertised as a "healing partner" of the elderly .. ." (Agence France-presse, 2005).3 This puppet is not a real robot, as it only moves its eyes and plays a pre-recorded phrase without moving its mouth. Nevertheless, it is still very popular, which is an interesting phenomenon in itself. You can call Yumel Set to match the user's sleep mode. Users should bring it to bed, where they can hug it, and it will sing a sweet lullaby to them. In the morning, it will wake up its owner at the scheduled time. An additional 'feature' is that it will ask you to buy gifts and new clothes from time to time. Of course, they can be obtained from Tommy. What is the power of the machine that is not easy to say, but it is still very popular. Similar toys are aimed at both adults and the elderly. The children only saw that the Primopuel doll was aimed at adults in the secondary market. This doll looks like a doll with a nose. Like Yumel, the vocabulary is not large, and you can stick them like a child. It turns out that this doll is very popular, and the creator Bandi made millions of yen from this method. According to reports, the owner of this robot considered a real child, and it can be a couple without a child and the agent of other lonely adults (same as above). This growing partner robot market has not spread too far from Japan so far, but efforts to sell these products are in Europe and the United States.

You can find the Yumel product website here (http://www.tomyy.co.jp/yume/index2.asp).

152

JP Sullins

5 Emotional Robot Design in the USA and Europe 5.1 Social Robots at MIT There is also a desire to create robotic companions on the other side of the Pacific. Some of the most interesting work on this topic comes from the Robotic Life group led by Cynthia Breazeal of the MIT Media Lab. 4 Breazeal, a student of groundbreaking robotics expert Rodney Brooks, takes over the MIT lab, the particular environment that brought Brooks into the field of artificial intelligence, and steers it in fascinating new directions. So far, lab bots have attracted a lot of media attention for their striking social attributes. Perhaps the most famous of these robots is Kismet, the human interaction machine that Breazeal used in his thesis at the MIT AI Lab. 5 It was the first serious attempt in American academic robotics to create a machine that could interact with humans on a friendly and personal level. Her group gave Kismet some emotional responses, arguing that adding these capabilities "...is a critical step toward designing socially intelligent synthetic organisms that we can eventually interact with as friends rather than devices" (Breazeal, 1999, 25). Building on the lessons learned from Kismet, the lab is now working with Hollywood special effects wizards at Stan Winston Studios to build Leonardo to the next level of social robotics. While Kismet clearly looks like a robot, Leonardo manages to hide that fact better, looking like a strange but lovable mammal straight out of a movie. Leonardo is controlled by animatronics, but differs from mere expensive puppets in that his movements are fully computer controlled and programmed to react and interact with humans as humans. Leonardo looks at you while you talk to him, tries to infer your intentions from your body movements and gestures, and then in turn communicates his emotions to you (the user) through facial expressions and body gestures and the sign of faith. The goal is to create machines where the user does not have to change the way they exist in the world and interact with human and non-human agents. Breazeal argues that we have developed a complex social system that works well and that roboticists need to learn how to adapt their machines to the way we already communicate, rather than imposing a strange and difficult-to-use interface on us (Breazel, 2002). This is especially necessary when working about non-technical users, such as those in the home, where the machine must be suitable for family members and must not interfere with the living environment and practices of the occupants. This limitation means that the robot must respond to us

http://robotic.media.mit.edu/ Details about kismet: (http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/humanoid-robotics-group/kismet.html).5

a friend of design

153

Physiology and the ability to understand our emotions and needs (Breazeal et al., 2004). If this is achieved, the robot seems to be the perfect companion.

5.2 Access to the design of emotional robots from the MIT and European Media Laba Brian Duffy from the European Media Laba compiled a list of designs that it believes in order to use anthropomorphism in the successful social robot design (Duffy, 2003).- Use social communication conventions in function and form.For example, with a robot with expressions, it is easier to communicate than with a box without expression.- Avoid "Testy Valley".Robotics Researcher Masahiro Mori claims that the machine looks too human, but it is actually a worse robot design with multiple iconic properties, as users think that the synthesizer is creepy or creepy.Unless or until he gets the power of a fictitious robot like Data in the next generation of stellar trails, it could be a little strange anyway.- Use natural movements.The movement should be a bit of jerk, such as natural presence, not perfect, fluid and unearmal, as it is sometimes seen in digital animation.- Balance between form and function.Designers should not create false expectations among users making the bot seems better than it is.- A man and machine.Designers should not feel limited by adjusting the robot to human form.Our social infrastructure naturally makes it important for social robots to be human size so they can go through the door, etc.- Facilitate the development of the own identity of the robot.The machine must participate in human social interaction, and not only be an object in that social space.- Mood.Machines need artificial emotions to make it easier for non-technical users to understand and enable emotional interaction.- Autonomy.Machines must have their own independence and the ability to understand their role in the social environment and how to manage in that environment (I believe that we all want to have more).Duffy's list is a good place to start and provides a good overview of some issues that have been initiated earlier in this chapter.I would like to add some design problems that mentioned the Cynthia Breazeal in his book Designing Social Robots, 2002, which are not in the above list.

154

JP Sullins

- The robot must have a homeostatic sense of "well -being", which can be modulated by interaction with the user.He has to know what he wants and how to get it.- Robots need an appropriate attention system.He must be able to make a living from what is important and ignore what does not exist in the environment in which he acts.- The robot must be able to provide indications of its inner "emotional" state, and must also be able to exactly read human users.- Learning is important, users must be sure that the machine will learn from their mistakes.- Ultimately, machines, strong personalities, better speech skills, empathy for users and other robots, mind theory and autobiographical memory, but these are very ambitious requirements and can last for decades to achieve.All of these ideas are summarized by descriptions of the philosophy of design followed by the most successful practitioners of emotional robotics in the United States and Europe.In the concluding section, I will comment on what we have learned and offer some thoughts on the intended use of emotional robots.

6 6.1

End language robot and phenomenology

Robots are at the end of a human technological path that has started with simple hand -run tools that have eventually developed into self -propelled vending machines that are beginning to appear today.Robots, as artifacts, are formed by interaction of human desires with technological systems and practice, and thus shape and shape the human life world in which they arise.Robots are objects, but as Carl Mitcham says: "However, technological objects are not just objects, tools and machines that transform energy, artifacts with unique internal structures or things made by humans; they are also objects that affect human experience" (Mitcham, 1994, p. 176).Robots and people form a cyber system that begins to see that people do not manage solely by behavior of robotic agents.As the machines become autonomous, they become what Mitcham calls "process tanks", which means that these technologies are not just tools, they are programmed for their own use.Together, these machines, and the technological and human systems with which they are interaction can be described as the "process of objectivation" (Mitcham, 1994, 168).This means that we need to seriously think about which processes we automate and how we do it, because robots will have certain artifacts, which means that "... artifacts will have consequences; there is a lot of disagreement on how to alleviate these effects"

a friend of design

155

(Mitchum, 1994, 182).Now I will discuss what types of emotional robotic systems should be promoted or restricted.From the perspective of the philosophy of technology, there are many possible criticisms of personal robotics, and I would like to comment on what I consider the most interesting.Looking at strategies for the construction of personal robotic systems for the impeccable automation of a modern home, we can see that the process of objectivization is a home life process.Our dream is for the system to do this for us as unobtrusively as possible and thus relieve the homes of the house leadership, and robots are washing our laundry, clean, cooking, etc. Insured by the work of Ivan Illich, Mitcham claims that instead of tools that automatically do a job for us, maybeWe need more tools that communicate with us using our energy and direction, for example, for their personal intentions in the world, in those rich traditional craft structures that left their mark were human residences for thousands of years.Users are now becoming consumers, leaving only their own traces in their waste (Mitcham, 1994, 184).

The phenomenology of humans and robots is a fascinating development in the history of technology. This is a complex topic, but it is possible to build an approach based on Albert Borgmann's (1984) equipment paradigm. The device paradigm is a delicate concept, but in short, when technology turns every aspect of our lives into interactions with various black boxes, and we are no longer able to process or even understand our fundamental relationships with the world or each other, it will emerge. Turn off the technology or "device". Home automation and robotics can accelerate the process of hiding the processes of family life behind the facade of friendly technology, which ultimately leads to the complete commodification of our life relationships. Every aspect of our home life will be completely surrounded by technology that we cannot fully understand, so we will not fully understand our home life and relationships with the people we live with, which have been adversely altered by home robotics and automation. Technology will satisfy our perceived needs, and we may begin to see our family members, and even ourselves, as dysfunctional devices with no real purpose that we can seek to replace with our perfect robotic companions. This criticism is leveled against entertaining sci-fi books and movies, but I think the reality may be more subtle. In the objectification of the family routine, we can lose the ability to live smartly and replace it with the ability to live simply and efficiently. Our lives will be efficient, but not emotional. I would like to make some modest additions to the design philosophy outlined in the paragraphs above, hoping to contribute ideas that lead us to build personal robotics and create a system of family relationships among all agents, human and artificial. Our near future home. First, emotional robots should not play lightly with human emotions. Certainly, these machines can generate real human emotions by simulating emotions, some of which can sometimes be inappropriate or dangerous. For this we also need to recognize the "uncanny valley" in the degree of emotional simulation

156

JP Sullins

programmed into our machines. Therefore, emotions must remain iconic or cartoonish so that even inexperienced users can easily recognize them as synthetic. Second, emotional bots must be used to enhance, not further isolate, users' social worlds. Emotional robots should not be used as a wholesale replacement for human interaction. As the technology becomes more attractive, so does the likelihood of this happening. Computers and information technology have an attractive, all-encompassing quality that acts like a cocoon to protect users from messy interactions with other people. Emotional robots are prone to this tendency and should be avoided. Finally, emotional robots give us the opportunity to discover interesting facts about the social psychology of friendship. As we strive to make our technologies friendlier, we should pay attention and learn how to incorporate these discoveries into other technologies. Emotional robots can only succeed as tools to improve social connectedness and cooperative behavior in the world in which humans live. They should not be used as a substitute for real people or pets, but as a new addition to these existing relationships, they will be welcome technology, and we may make new friends along the way.

AFP, 2005. Dok Japan Postaje SIV, Dizajni Proizvođača igračaka dolls for the elderly after Lexisnexis, Copyright 2005. AFP All rights reserved, 23. Veljače 2005. Aprberts, A., 2004., Oni Hodaju među Nama, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi, Trendovi:// đu Nama:///ww.roboticstrends.com/displayArticle447.html), copyright mcclatchy newspapers Inc., 28. Srpnja 2004. Biever, C., 2004., Machines Roll in to Care for the Aging, Robotics Trends (http: //ww.w..com/displayarticle395.html), Copyright 2004 Reed Business Information US, and division of Reed Elsevier Inc., 18,2004..Borgmann, A., 1984., Tehnologija I Character Suemenog života, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Breazeal, C., 1999., Robot in society: Vfriend or device?, U: 1999 Autonomous Agents Workshop On Emotion-based Agent Architectures, Seattle, WA, STR.18-26.Procedings.Breazeal, CA, 2002., Designing social robots, MIT Press, Cambridge, Ma.Breazeal, C., Brooks, A., Gray, J., Hoffman, G., Kidd, C., Lee, H., Lieberman, J., Lockerd, A., and Mulanda, D., 2004, Humanoid RoboticsIf sameen operation partners for people, is assessed (http://robotic.media.mit.edu/papers/Breazeal-etal-ijhr04.pdf).Brooks, RA, 2002., Meso I Strojevi, Pantheon Books, New York.Dennett, D., 1996, Kinds of Minds, Basic Books, New York.Duffy, B., 2003, Anthropomorphism and the social robot, Robo.And car.Sustavi 42: 177-190.Feenberg, A., 1995., Alternativna Modernost, University of California Press, Berkeley I Los Angeles.Garson, B., 1988, the electronic sweatshops.Penguin, New York.Hornnyak, T., 2002, seal of approval: researchers investigate vague logic of relaxation with cuddly robots,[E-mail protected](http://www.japaninc.net/article.php?Articleid=819), June 2002.Japan Economic News Line, 2005, TokyOnow: Elderly love to be treated by stamp robots, all rights reserved 2005 Kyodo News Service.

A friend of design

157

Kahney, L., 2003, Robot vacuums are in the house, Wired, (http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,59237,00.html), June 16, 2003. Kaheyama, Y ., 2004, Japan's answer to controlled robots, Trends in Robotics, [http://www.roboticstrends.com], Copyright 2004 Woodward Communications, Inc., 21 April 2004 Kanda, T. and Ishiguro, H ., 2005, Communication Robots for Elementary Schools, http://www.irc.atr.jp/~kanda/pdf/kanda-aisb2005.pdf Kanda, T., Ishiguro, H. and Ishida, T., 2001, Psychoanalysis of Human-Computer Interaction, IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA 2001), p. 4166-4173. MacDorman, K., 2005, The Economist, 20 December 2005. Kanda, T., Sato, R., Saiwaki, N. and Ishiguro, H., 2004, Friendly social robots that understand friendly relationships between humans, IEEE /RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS2004), p. 2215 -2222. Maney, K., 2003, A Vacuum Sweeps History, USA Today, 14 January 2003. Menezel, P. and D'Aluisio, 2000, Robosapiens: The Evolution of a New Species, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Mitcham, C., 1994, Thinking Through Technology: A Path Between Engineering and Philosophy, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Moravec, 1999, Robots: From Mere Machines to Minds Beyond, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Mori, M., Terry, CS, trans., 1981, The Buddha in Robots: Reflections on Science and Religion by a Robotic Engineer, Kosei Publishing, Tokyo. Mori, M., 1970, Uncanny Valley, Energy 7(4):33-35. Perkowitz, S., 2004, Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids, Joseph Henry Press, Washington DC Winner, L., 1988, The Whale and the Reactor: A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology, University of Chicago Press , Chicago.

Outside the design of engineering software as a bridge according to the dichotomy culture / technology Bernhard Rieder and Mirkotobias Schäfer

Summary In this chapter, we first discuss the growing cultural importance of software as a driver for auditing software production. We then show how network computing has inspired new practices of engineering creation that challenge conventional engineering logic; open source software development is an example. Therefore, it is no longer possible to separate the technical dimension from the cultural context. An integrated perspective can lead humanists and technologists to reassess established contradictions and redirect the debate to technological policy.

present

In his book Le Geste et la Parole, paleontologist André Leroi-Gourhan depicts the evolution of homosexuality as leaving the field of biological progress to resume its accelerated pace in the fields of language and technology. Although most of Leroi-Gourhans' propositions are not outdated, his conception of humanity is shaped by a network of objects and symbols, and it could be said that machines and discourse are a powerful image in an era when that tool was a neutral idea. Artifacts remain an important paradigm. The resurgence of academic interest in technology over the past decade is not only a means to an end, but also a cultural force. As well as changing perspectives on the role of technological artefacts in the high-tech collective, we are more specifically aware of the growing awareness of 'tool makers' based on technological progress. Every era seems to have epitomized technological creation: medieval professionals, industrial revolution inventors, and 20th century engineers. Late capitalism proposed a new figure in the early 21st century: the designer as a toolmaker of the information age. B. Rieder, University of Paris 8 M. T. Schäfer, University of Utrecht

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

159

160

B. Rieder 和 MT Schäfer

The past two decades have produced a vast literature on new ways of creating technological objects: from product design to web design, from industrial design to experience design, design is everywhere, but no two definitions are the same. As such, the term refers less to a well-defined concept or approach, but rather to a distinction. For example, software design 1 is not a well-defined practice: it is a way of expressing that what is being done is somehow outside the well-defined practice of software engineering. Behind the word "design" there are actually many very different ways of creating, shaping and even using.

mixed practice

In industrial society, there are very few tasks that depend on computers in one way or another. Our communication and information pathways have largely shifted to the computer-based network infrastructure of our era that connects computers globally (Kay and Goldberg, 1977). Classic electronic media such as televisions and telephones are currently switching to the common protocol TCP/IP2 and thus becoming software that works on the Internet. Creative work, playing games, socializing, searching and managing information, many things we do in our daily lives are connected to digital tools and networks (Castells, 2000). We deliver a unique digital environment where computer hardware and software determine work options and expressive conditions. Traditionally, interest in technology within the humanities has been limited. Taking them into account, technological artifacts would be included in the industrial complex and viewed as producers of capital rather than meaning. But the dense intertwining of humans and non-humans that we are witnessing today increasingly requires an expanded view at the microscopic level, not only of the general aspects that theoretically make "society and culture" relevant to "technology", but especially Is the content of human things increasingly mixed with everyday practice . Referring to CERTEAU (1980), we can describe these practices as ways of facilitating action within a dense web of meaning, thus providing a basic idea of why something is done and outlining a good way to do it. Such works of art have a non-discriminating dimension, such as motor movements, objects and spatial institutions, and strong discursive elements, such as morality, law, rules and stories. These two aspects are intertwined through continuous action. Collins and Kusch (1998) describe in detail how in practice atomic motion particles can be used as concatenated or micro-overlaid trees involving kinematic motion.

The term was first used by Kapor (1986). Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a communication protocol that unites all the different networks on the Internet. 2

beyond technology

161

The theory of the acting-network network has shown (Latour, 1999) that behavior is not the property of individual agents, but a chain that connects human and inhuman "actors", with each "plan of action" combines in the form of a hybrid actor.From these perspectives, if we understand the practice as embedding action in time and habit, then the discursive dimension of art cannot be separated from its non-airy mechanical double duplex.By applying this perspective, we usually see, and with acceleration and amplification of ICT, machines take control of larger parts of the tree actions or the actions of the actions, making the actions of a hybrid nature.As a result, our practice is so saturated by machine work that in many cases, we do not even notice.The software-the main interest of this chapter - now goes deeper than "classic" technology because many of the tasks entrusted to logical machines are very semantic in its nature.The way, to perform tasks previously reserved for people.From the practical point of view, this hybrid process can be understood in two axes: new actions and practices become possible, for example based on virtual canvases, overseas video communication and real-time data.They are performed in different ways, such as shape, style, speed, efficiency, weight and extent.In this sense, the software is responsible for quantitative and qualitative dissemination of technology in shaping everyday practices of modern life.Culture and technology are so intertwined on the microrazine that even analytical separation of the two becomes very problematic (Latour, 1999).Is there still separation between discursive and non-minorized levels?Is this possible when computer programs analyze emails, newsletters with news and scientific publications to decide which one of them deserve our attention, and which ones should remain private?When the visibility of the opinion becomes an algorithm problem, 3 meanings are deeply embedded in non-discourse: in the software itself.Technology is not only surrounded by discourse, it is a discourse.Although we do not agree with Heidegger's hostility according to technology, his understanding of tools as ontological agents, as the ways "Entbergen" (discovery), is still worth considering.In enframing, discourse and non-discourse are collected;He is also an object and logic - Foucault's words, diagram, but the essential difference between those two planes has greatly disappeared.The lesson you drawn from this is diametrically opposed to Heidegger's view: involve yourself, not withdraw.We would like to claim that technology does not provide one but of several ways to detect beings, and that the way we create technological artifacts - most important software - strongly affects the cultural roles they will play.Tools are not neutral;They integrate and propagate human values (Friedman, 1997).But these

3 For example, the Slashdot messaging platform (http://www.slashdot.org) uses an extensive discussion system that includes a technical measure of symbolic capital and adjusts the visibility of individual messages accordingly.

162

B. Staff and M.T.Sheet

The values are not necessarily those of technocratic reasoning, for Heidegger argues that the full range of human understanding is possible. Software has brought technology closer to us than ever before, and now it's time to look at the practices that have become an essential part of the fabric of our cultural constitution.

Software, design and open code

Since the launch of modern computers in the late 1940s, especially from consumer computers marketing in the 1980s, computers have become ubiquitous.60 years, these machines are still covered with a vague atmosphere. This is actually their strength. The computer is uncertain in function;They need software to turn them into complete devices with different functions.Hardware, that is, universal machines, plus input/output equipment, network and other peripheral devices, formed the necessary basic mechanical layer, and the "specific" machine is a set of function andProcedures for processing information and by the appropriate connection, material and energy -is a programs resurgeon. Even Tulin said: The importance of universal machines is obvious. We need an unlimited number of different machines to perform different tasks. One is sufficient. Technical problems that produce different machines for different machines forDifferent tasks are replaced by the "programming" of universal machines to perform these tasks. (1984, 4)

These words highlight another reason for the novelty of the technology and the cultural significance of IT: People who buy computers today are not only getting a physical device, but also access to a seemingly endless world of logical machines. These software programs come from a rapidly evolving environment where today's ways of working go far beyond classical engineering methods and even what Turing called "office work." Before we take a closer look at these practices, we need to examine some properties of the software.

3.1

software attributes

Although there has been much thought about what software actually is, the issue is far from being fully understood. Although the mathematical foundations of software have been stable since Turing, Church, and Shannon, the final decision on what we can actually do with it is still unknown. As society changes, software changes, with new applications every day. Programs are popping up all over the world. However, some basic properties of logic machines can be specified. Unlike other technological objects, software is intangible. It is similar in structure to language, and in effect to technology. written as

outside the technology

163

Text, its function is like a machine. Latour (1992) emphasized that in Austin's words: "How to do things with words and then turn text into things is now obvious to all programmers." Therefore, design (that is, drawing blueprints) and constructing a project (that is, drawing blueprints) and construction (that is, physical structure) Classic distinctions cannot be well transformed into software programming. According to Jack W. Reeves (1992), writing source code it can be compared to design, but construction is nothing more than translating the source code into machine language by compiling the program. Therefore, unlike a classic (hardware) project, the cost of software design is high - writing functional software takes a lot of time - but the cost of construction is low .From an economic point of view, we can even say that it is production equipment. It differs from other technical fields. It is especially used for creating software: aside from the cost of a computer, production software is basically free. Cost. factor. In this sense, software is closer to literature or music, not industrial production - Workplace is a place of work. This greatly promoted the transformation from consumers to producers. Like knowledge and information, software can be shared without causing a tangible loss to the service provider. Internet transferring and copying computer code is as simple as text, sound or image; algorithm, program libraries and modules are accumulated in different positions, which is equivalent to a complete workshop. It has an unlimited inventory of spare parts. Essence Today, universal programming languages like Java have thousands of ready-made built-in blocks. Writing code is usually more like playing with playing blocks than the tedious task of processing memory registers in the past. Unlike industrial products, computer programs are always initial and never really completed or "closed". Classical machines also need maintenance, calibration and maintenance, but with software the temporary nature is pushed to the limit. Just click the mouse and the entire subsystem can be copied to another program. The output of one software can immediately become the input of another software. We will never encourage such a view, that is, everything digitalization flows, chaotic and automatic organization, but the fact is that this kind of freedom that is not subject to most physical limitations makes it easier for software than for hardware to act more easily. . And processing. The only limitations are time and skills. This relative freedom is one of the reasons for such differences in software production and books within books.

3.2

Software design as a heterogeneous practice

According to IEEE Standard 610.12, software engineering is "the use of a systematic, disciplined, measurable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software." 4 Strategies and methods of translation attempts 4

See: http://standards.ieee.org/catalog/olis/se.html

164

B. Boater mountain shepherd

Classic projects in the software field were never fully successful and criticized in different directions. We may summarize all the different views made in this complex and long-term debate, but there are several important key positions. One argument is only less programming than methods, not skills,already making, not technologies."Although Microsoft and other huge manufacturers have increased, the software is largely traditional industry" .st, the most important issue of design is not how to find the right way, but how to acquire the correct skills. The argument is that it is software.Engineering convenient, but it cannot be introduced directly from traditional engineering to certain methods and strategies, because of the construction of bridges and houses (Reeves, 1992).By using the strictness of mathematics, but they should be used as an important part of computer programs. CONTENCE, Some software engineers should accept the additions of other majorettes, especially engineer designers, because buildings and software "in two world technology worlds and the worldWorld World "Kapor, 1996). In this vision, the computer program does not apply to technical problems, but integrates users and tools in a meaningful way. BES consideration of these different attitudes, the observation of experience is still, so the practice of software is rarely similar.Top Technical Models, such as a lifecycle or model of the Waterfall, which is in the neat demand in the gradual work plan process. "The actual world of" software development is usually described as "a toretic" (Coyne "(1995), whichIt consists of "Bricolage, Heurantical, Serendipity and Make-Do" (Ciborra, 2004), or as a result. "Monarch et al., 1997)., We must accept the Technical Ideal: Ideal. The production software usually follows the path outside of the project. Two important factors are taken into account, and increase the complexity. Of course, the software will be increasingly "cultural" and less"Technology" .If the computer does what works in the 1960s (that is, calculating and storing data), may not discuss software engineering or design. Semantic and social functions of the computer. Nearby, using design methods or end usersIn order to try to integrate future users to integrate the vague of software specifications during the software process, the complexity of the software is quickly increasing, which always makes it difficult to plan a code. It is impossible to provide problems at an early stage.The plan and model must be

outside the technology

165

Changes must be tested and specifications must be adjusted during the build process. Agile methods such as extreme programming and rapid prototyping work to make complexity more manageable and turn a top-down waterfall into a series of iterations. The properties of software, the spread of these properties in space via the Internet, and the changing technological landscape are slowly eroding the modern ideal of a clear division between technology and culture, dispassionate rationality and human drive. A closer look at the different environments in which software is produced supports this argument. As an example, we will briefly analyze the open source scene to show how a whole new set of players, strategies and practices can emerge where material cost is no longer a limiting factor.

3.3

From the open source scenario

At one level, the term "open source" refers to a certain way of handling and sharing computer software. 5 This means that the program can be used not only in machine code, but also in source code, that is, in a text file written in a programming language. Language. Languages people can use. To qualify as open source, the public must be allowed to modify and redistribute the product. On another level, the term refers to the communities6 built around this concept of openness and sharing that are responsible for much of today's software production. Almost every kind of program now has an open source equivalent. The open source scene is very diverse, but a global ideal type of how it works can be outlined. Most importantly, open source cannot be imagined without the Internet. Platforms such as sourceforge.net, as well as mailing lists and newsgroups, are tools for organizing and coordinating a globally distributed and mostly volunteer workforce. A project usually begins with an embryonic program written by an individual or group and released under an open source license to those invited to participate in its development. If it generates enough interest, an active process begins: following the motto "release early, release often", versions of the program are periodically published on the web, where anyone interested can add code, report bugs and fix them. .Integrated features and solutions are usually identified by moderators (groups or individuals), complemented by a community process very similar to scientific peer review. The highly linear structure of classical engineering is thus translated into a rapid code/build/debug sequence in which requirements specification, interface design and user testing are performed simultaneously,5 here we refer to the definition of open source provided by the Open Source Initiative ( http://www .opensource.org /docs/definition.php). 6 The open source scene is far from homogeneous, with some power struggles between the highly political free software movement and the rather pragmatic open source movement.

166

B. Rieder 和 MT Schäfer

Keep changing.Cooperation is the most important "tool" to deal with complexity.Web based development platforms provide infrastructure to present projects, communication between participants and the coordination of the removal of errors and the maintenance of the code;They are a medium that allows the so -called "virtual factories" in which a diverse and scattered audience communicates its collective intelligence.Open code scene is also different from traditional engineering in terms of social norms and general mindset.Mathematical austerity is less appreciated than open and participatory communication.As in other subcultures (young), showing skills (not a degree) is a major source of symbolic capital.Inclusion, discussion, cooperation and open flow of information are more important than the clear distribution of tasks, roles and responsibilities.At the institutional level, the Open Source Scene has become an important element of socialization and education education.The vibrant and useful network community allows people to receive help and learn from individuals who have acquired their status for their contribution to the area.Accessible codes and culture of participating in the open code scene create a robust environment for learning for individual skills levels.While engineering has traditionally been associated with somewhat authoritarian institutions in schools and universities, the open code community supplements these forms by providing a learning environment through work based on a playful imitation and self -taught skill acquisition.To show that open code products are an important part of the software world, we discuss three examples: Linux operating system, Apache web server and Firefox internet browser.Linux was born in 1991 when Finnish student Linus Torvalds wrote a very simple kernel program (the heart of each operating system) as an accompanying project and placed it on a web, urging others to join it.Since then, Linux has evolved into a modern, robust, complete operating system that is now probably the only serious competitor of Microsoft Windows.It is available for free and is constantly maintained and expanded by the community of thousands of developers worldwide.Most Fortune 500 companies are now using Linux, as well as the City Administration of Vienna, Munich and Paris.One of the reasons for this success is the price, but other factors also play a role, such as reliability, platform independence and the ability to correct mistakes in the walk without the supplier involve.The Apache project began in 1995 and has been growing up since then to become a dominant web server application with a market share of over 52%.7 Open Codes, free, developed and maintained under the leadership of Apache SLinux and Apache, plus free database systems

Netcraft Serverwatch Juli 2007, http://www.serverwatch.com/stats/article.php/3686926

beyond technology

167

Mysql and PHP, an open code programming language, are the most common platforms (called lamps) for dynamic web applications.The Firefox web browser grew from the code published in 1998 by the community by the stumbled company Netscape.The Mozilla Foundation issued Firefox as version 1.0 at the end of 2004.Encouraged by strong criticisms for various security defects in Microsoft Internet Explorer, an open code browser won a huge market share of 2005.This is also a great example of how open-code communities allow non-stigers to participate.With a bug of bugzilla bugs, anyone can report bugs and request features in future editions.Skillful users can expand with the main browser application using the learning supplements.Firefox is ultimately more than the software itself, it is a community that contributes to logos, T -shirts, paintings and backgrounds and whole viral marketing campaigns.The open code scene shows that methods and strategies in engineering production cannot be separated from the social, economic and cultural context in which they inspire and are inspired.Engineering culture is just one of many opportunities in the field open to produce multiple models.Computers have made engineering creativity available to a larger and more diverse audience than previous technology.From writing the code to designing levels for computer games, there is a wide range of possible engagement for each level of skill.While the new ways of creation differ in many aspects than the earlier forms of amateur culture, they differ in one very important aspect: three projects we are discussing are not only niche products, but highly competitive high quality handicrafts.This marked the extended cultural industry, the opening of the production of cultural artifacts to those previously excluded: consumers.9 Of course, there are many commercial actors on the open code scene - IBM, Novell, Intel and others are actively involved in financing, but an intertwined network of companies and individuals that transcends the production of Adorna and Horkheimer (1944) a one -way process that has been fiercely criticized.The idea is contagious, and phenomena such as Wikipedia, blogs or countless music publishers on the Internet are brought by the principles of open code in a broader context of cultural production.Computers and the Internet can be viewed as technologies that allow users to spread cultural industries and participate in the production of cultural artifacts, which enhances the social dynamics we are witnessing today (Jenkins, 2002) - recently branded about the term "Web 2.0".While engineering is often seen as a neutral, independent and "objective" way of solving problems, a collaborative and automatically organized design process indicates

8 In Europe, Firefox up to 34% in Finland and 24% in Germany; see XiTi Browser Survey, September 2005, online: http://www.xitimonitor.com/etudes/equipement11.asp 9 According to Walter Benjamin (2002 2000 ), it is the political responsibility of every artist to facilitate the transition from consumer to producer.

168

B. ping a M. T. Blad

The open source scene does not operate the social and cultural aspects of technology created by the tasks of code design and writing. These events do not intend to replace traditional and organized work, educational and research institutions;What we see today is the trend of diversification and cross-integration. In relation to Eric Raymond (1998), we can say that the market did not replace the cathedral, but flourished in the urban streets around it, slowly penetrating the world;and "alternative" development methods and strategies are not limited to open source communities: due to the above calculations, most areas are constantly forced to surpass the established methodology. All in all, we consider the software design to constant field andHe combines many different methods, ideological genres and participants.

The bridging of the cultural/technical gap

So far, we have proposed two different arguments: first of all, we are trying to show that software plays an increasingly important role in our daily lives, emphasizing that culture is a mixture of technology and discourse. Second, we discussed how software production surpasses classical engineering settings and methods. In the third part of this chapter, we want to discuss these two arguments and their impact in three different areas: humanities, technology, and policy formulation.

4.1

Humanistic discourse

Traditionally, philosophy and cultural theory agrees that technology is something beyond society and culture, or at least different things. This perspective, the practice of creating technical artificial products is basically different from the process of symbolization, such as writing laws or literature.The assumption is to make the material rule of our "Lebenswelt" through efficiency, while the second is concerned about the social (law) or cultural (literary) dimension that pays attention to a human survival. This separation has a suitable effect, which is why those who think about technology avoid anyWhat needs for technical knowledge, because "technical science" always creates more of the same things.The real challenge is to reveal the basics of each layer.Dynamics, a career reserved for symbolic master. I have this view has a very dangerous side of the meaning of technology means minus the technology is not considered deep culture, society, symbol and political activities, then its creators have no reason to adopt moraland a political attitude toward their work.

outside the technology

169

Outline questions of physical injury to others.We believe that at a time when the use of logical machines becomes a part of the practices that make up our lives, we need concepts not only "the impact" technology on culture, but also those who recognize the technology as a form of culture: not only embodied homogeneous logic "framework" has been interruptedand is continuously differentiated into various forms, practices, values and struggles for power.There are increasing number of social scientists that are empirically contributed by great software projects.However, when we look at the software design area, we must wonder if our terms of technology are sufficient to understand many possible links between methods, artifacts that also produce their influence on society.Humanities can take the task of expanding our still a very limited technological imagination and paving the way according to production models that enable the disclosure between people and non-gender.

4.2

Technical discourse

If we see software design as a diverse and decentralized practice that has played a role in shaping the structure of the world we live in, we need to rethink our attitudes, not only as theories, but also as creators of technology. Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores wrote about two decades ago, "We face profound design problems" (Winograd and Flores, 1986). There must be dialogue between the various groups that design software to promote awareness of the cultural dimensions of their work. The beginning has already begun: parts of the open source community have made clear the political issues associated with their technical endeavors, and the software design community is strongly committed to joining the humanities. The area that lags behind a lot is education. Consultation between technical departments and the humanities remains rare, and current curricula are not suitable for producing "culturally aware technologists" or "technologically aware theorists". This is the real challenge of bridging the dichotomy between culture and technology: a more comprehensive understanding of technology is now emerging where it can make a difference.

4.3

politics

The third area we discuss is policies. Fortunately, in this area, especially in the issue of software centers and open source issues, we have already had very active discussions. However, the focus of the discussion is economic and legal issues. In this matter, culture is considered only as a mortgage. Few people recognize that technical producers run outside the classic roads

170

B. ping a M. T. Blad

Industries are an important part of civil society because they actively create resources for expression and action. Political issues can only be properly addressed if we understand software writing as a possible way of civic engagement. As an arbiter in the ongoing battle over software patents, the state will have to decide whether the amorphous coding community, which spans the web and makes its work available in the public domain, is of particular value to society and therefore worthy of protection from established commercial actors' overwhelming financial prowess. The new design practices we attempt to present and theorize in this chapter are by no means inevitable; while general purpose machines provide a solid foundation for the social and cultural activities around them, the free flourishing of technological creativity is a fragile thing, easily reduced to pure hobbyist cannibalization, as is the case with many other technologies. There is (still) democratic potential in the SGD media and we will have to decide whether to nurture it or not.

in conclusion

We call this chapter "Beyond Engineering" because the term "engineering" has become a technocratic separation of the technical climate from the cultural, social, and political climate. For a way of thinking that involves the creation of technological artifacts as a distant and orderly process, it is closer to computation than to creativity. The modern ideal of engineering as a politically and culturally neutral process - free from human motives, untouched by morality and emotion - seems outdated today. A closer look at software design shows that there are several approaches, strategies, and ways of thinking that guide the creation of programs, systems, and applications. Our brief analysis of the open source scenario demonstrates that extensions of classical methodologies, alternative routes, collaborative approaches, and automated organizational forms of workflow are possible and valid. We believe that fluctuations in the way technological artifacts are implemented are not just minor adjustments, but necessary adjustments to the changing place of technology in our society. While technology permeates the practice of our everyday, culture recovers by penetrating the production sphere and taking on all the citations, contradictions and complexities. Regardless, their divorce was never clear, but the interpenetration has reached new heights these days. The intangible nature of software is spreading through the global infrastructure of the Internet, affecting more and more users and designers. We call the manufactured spaces of production, distribution and consumption broad cultural industries, where the boundaries between consumers and producers disappear and where social and technological forces are closely intertwined. While there are some insights into how we can democratically channel social forces, it is still not clear how the same can be achieved on the technical side of hybrids. It now seems clear that in a high-tech society tools and

beyond technology

171

Objects play an important role in the design of cultural practice, expression and imagination;It is a very cultural gesture.Watching parallels between language and software can help us understand the nature of our current complex technological social situation;It can also allow us to see that free technological creation is a form of freedom of expression.The responsibility of the humanities is to find what it might mean.

References Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M., 1988, Dialectik der Aufklärung, Fischer, Frankfurt a.M., First Published 1944. Benjamin, W., 2002, Der Author Als Produvent, U: W. Benjamin, Medienästhetische Scripts, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt a .. M., Str.231-247, first published in 1934 Castells, M., 2000., Information Age: Economy, Society, Blackwell, Malden, MA, 3 Volume Published 1996. Certeau, M. De, 1994, L'Invention Du Quotidien, Gallimard, PARIS, Published in 1980. Cibrorra, C., 2004, Meeting of information systems as a phenomenon, in: The Social Study of Information and Communication Technology: Innovation, Actors, and Contexts, C. Augurou,C. Cibrorra and F. Land, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p.17-37, p.19. Collins, H. and Kusch, M., 1998, Forms of the action: What people and machines can do, Mit Press, Cambridge, MA.Coyne, R., 1995. Information technology design in the postmodern era: from method to metaphor, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, p.32. Dyson, F.J., 1998, science as a craft industry, science 280 (5366): 1014 -1015.Friedman, B., Ur., 1997, Human Values and the Design of Computer Technology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Graham, P., 2003, Hackers and Painters, Lecture at Harvard, http://www.paulgraham.com/hp.html Jenkins, H., 2002., Interactive audience?, In: The New Media Book, D.Harries, editor, British Film Institute, London, p.157-170.Kay, A. I Goldberg, A., 2003, Personal Dynamic Media, in the New Media Reader, F. Wardrip I N. Montford, ed., Mit Press, Cambridge, p.393-404, first published in 1977.Kapor, M., 1996, Manifesto software design, in Bringing Design to Software, T. Winograd, ed., Addison-Wesely, Boston, Str.1-10, p.4. Latour, B., 1992, Where are the missing masses?, U: Shaping Technology / Building Society, W. Bijker and J. Law, ed., Mit Press, Cambridge, Ma, p.225-258, p..255. Latour, B., 1999, Pandorina Nada: Essays of Scientific Studies, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma Monarch, IA, Conda, Sl, Levy, SN, Reich, Y., SUBRAHMANIAN, E., I ULRICH,C., 1997, Mapping of socio-technical networks, in: social sciences, technical systems and cooperative work: with the side of the large division, edited by G.C.Bowker, S.L.Star, W. Turner and L. Gasser, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, Str.331-354, p.337. Raymond, ES, 1998, The Cathedral and the Bazaar, First Monday 3 (3), http://www.firstmonday.org/isuses/issue3_3/raymond/ Reeves, J.W., 1992., What is software design?, The C ++ Journal, Fall 1992 Touring, AM, 1948, Intelligent Machines, National Physical Laboratory Report (http://www.alanturing.net/Turing_archive/archive/L/L32/L32-001.html).Winograd, T. and Flores, F., 1986, Understanding Computers and Knowledge: New design based, Addison-Wesley, Boston, str.xi.

The Technical Naturalization of Human-Scale Design Challenges Alfred Nordmann

Günther Anders, looking back at the time of nuclear weapons, he pointed out that the possibilities of technology are beyond human understanding.Genetically modified organisms, ubiquitous computers in intelligent environments and imaginary application of nanotechnology are similar challenges;Powerful technological interventions are incomprehensible, at least because they are too small or too much to manifest in human perception and experience.Top technological research programs therefore offer strange retrograde inversion of relationship between human, technology and nature.Technology is no longer a means of manipulating nature to protect, protect or strengthen people, but to merge with nature, becoming creepy, incomprehensible, out of sensibility and conceptual control.While people start the technological process of disappointment and rationalization, technology will become equally fascinating technology, perhaps even scary, as it used to be nature.A good design can prevent this reversal, for example by creating a man-machine interface, even when the technology is too small to experience.

As an engineering natural machine and natural machine

In 1665, Robert Hooke suggested that the microscope would help us: to distinguish between all the secrets of nature, almost as we become artistic works and control by wheels, engines and feathers. They are humanitarian. (Hook 1665, Foreword)

As for the general purpose of the royal society and the science of bacon, that is: "Improve and promote existing handmade art models", that is, the technology further emphasizes: these body effects are usually attributed to attributes, as well as those who areThose who are considered mysterious, it is performed by a small machine in nature.If there is no microscope and looks like], it is just a product of movement, graphics and size, and these machines cannot be different;There are some natural textures called plastics as plastic.

A. Nordmann, University of Technology STERT STERT

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

173

174

Norwegian

Teachers can be used with weaving mechanisms, which can be seen through these glasses through more perfect choices;Therefore, they were no longer surprised.Ordinary people have to understand the weaving of carpets or floral material. (Hook 1665, Preface)

Nature is becoming more and more famous, the Hooker suggests here, as we look at it through better and better microscopes.We can all understand how the machines work, there is nothing mysterious or mystical in the weaving flats that weave gobbies, and once we see that nature is made up of such small machines, we will see that there is nothing mysterious in nature.Although it was written more than 300 years later, it seems that the next passage expresses a similar point.One of the first and most prominent public presentations of increasingly better and better microscopes that allow us to see and observe nanotechnology began to emphasize what these microscopes tell us about engineering to this extent.It is said that nature has started with a bunch of chemical ingredients and then induced them into a device as delicate and sublime as a human body.Even dream.[…] Now the human brand Nanonnaženga appears.To compile a material world with the virtuosity of nature?What if we could build things like nature does - atoms by atoms and molecules by molecules?(AMATO, 1999, 1)

It has become commonplace to introduce nanotechnology, emphasizing that it is basically biomimetic and that everything that works is imitated by nature - whether to respect or preserve the developed nature we know.However, there is a fundamental difference between two mechanical or technological views of nature from 1665 and 1999.2 According to Hooke, we are already familiar with the weavers, there is nothing mysterious about them, and now we discover that these rather familiar and unsightly devices also work in nature.At least we can project their mechanisms on nature, at the same time generating mechanical explanations of phenomena.In other words, we have assimilated nature and technology, which has resulted in what is called a technologized view of nature or "nature technology".Considering the original brand of nature, nanonzenjering reveals time priorities.Human branding occurs only when we integrate technology into nature and thus get what is called a technology that imitates nature or "naturalized technology".Even early examples of nanotechnology such as catalysis are really young compared to their own natural nanotechnology, which appeared several billion years ago when molecules began to be organized into complex structures that could support life.Photosynthesis, a biological way of collecting solar energy that triggers so many kingdoms of life on Earth, is one of the ancient products of evolution.[…] Abalone, a mollusc in the service of another

See Nordmann (2004) For a more detailed discussion of this manual.Not all these differences are considered here, see Jones (2004) and Bensaude-Vincent and Guchet (2005).2

nationalization of technology

175

An eternal favorite in the enviable gallery of nanotechnology in nature. These slimy creatures build an ultra-tough shell with a beautiful iridescent interior. They did this by arranging the same calcium carbonate found in brittle school chalk into strong nanostructured stones. (Amato, 1999, 3)

The transformation from "natural technology" to "technical naturalization" is usually praised as a new, friendlier, more effective and alienated design paradigm. Instead of forcing nature into the mold of crude machines, it is better to say that the intellectual and complexity of natural design solutions (Rossmann and Tropea ( 2004).However, here I want to explore the limits of the biological ideal, that is, technology enters the natural limit, it is clearly a person. Under this limitation, the concept of "nature" and "technology" has become unstable and has lost the power of standards: instead of highlighting the living conditions on planets in their specific cosmological environment, but "nature" will "natural" "nature" of will "Low to process and principles 3;" Technology "becomes opaque, magical and even eerie rather than transparent, rationalization and control rather than transparent. When the chosen technology became too small or too large to achieve human experience, and in this limitation, human-scale design became increasingly challenging (compared to Clement, 1978, 18). As we will see, when technology tries to use surprising attributes caused by the natural process of natural organizations, this limitation can be achieved.

Scientific insight and technical performance

Hooker emphasized that nature becomes comprehensible as well as technology when we see small but ordinary machines at work in nature. In contrast, the human brand of nanoengineering can provide us with technologies that are as opaque as natural alchemy. From chalk to sea shells […] This is the alchemy of natural nanotechnology without human intervention. Now physicists, chemists, materials scientists, biologists, mechanical and electrical engineers, and many other experts are pooling their collective knowledge and resources so that they too can transform the world at the atomic and molecular level. (Amato, 1999, 4)

To many, the promise of nanotechnology is to use the alchemy of nature its opaque, if not mysterious, the ability to self -organize for engineering purposes.At first glance, this seems like an amazing claim.When scientists and engineers transform the world, they certainly do not do it alchemy.The concept is to spin like a nice.

3 Although the material natural concept provides technical standards (for example, maintains these living conditions), only an empty "bion" design concept is the nature and process of conceptual principles and processes (Von Gleich, 2006).

176

Norwegian

hum of engines in summer windows" (Amato, 1999, p. 4). Indeed, we must first attribute our engineering ideas: only if we can base it on causal mechanisms (whether physical, chemical or biological. Therefore, from a scientific point of view, the differences quickly disappeared between the texts of 1665 and 1999. However, in terms of philosophy of technology and design issues, the differences between the two texts were still evident, which drives my main argument: Domesticated technologies form a wedge between scientific understanding and technological influence. Developing nanoscale devices, genetically modified food or smart environments requires very traditional terms of understanding and 4 But once we see them as independent technological systems, domesticated technologies cease to be objects of science and experience, they have taken on a life of their own, to the extent that we no longer perceive, we do not understand or control them, to the point where we no longer see them as mechanisms or "under the influence of human reason." design," but retreats into the misunderstood structure of nature and its enigmatic properties.

look carefully

To better understand naturalization technology, you can take genetically modified food as an example.Then these phenotypal characteristics can disappear with plants or are completely consumed, so as not to exist -how much we know the essence, in some cases, when genetic modifications reach a place that cannot be monitored in the environment through our body, can continue to exist and play the role.In these reports, we should seek impact on health, environmental interaction, emperors butterfly, etc. Even though they were originally interested, genetically modified food allowed us to participate in the ubiquitous technical environment.This environment looks amazing as cruel nature.On the one hand, these are his bacteria, viruses or viruses or bacteria, as well as her hurricane, an earthquake and an earthquake. Read and eruption on another. In short, as far as we know, when a technical institution develops lower than or greater than the threshold of people's perception, come acrosswe will on naturalization technology.

4 I use the term "intelligent environment" to refer to the technological processes of "ubiquitous computing" or "environmental information".

Nationalization of technology

177

5 This must be taken literally and must be distinguished from situations where technological institutions take place only below the threshold of consciousness or attention. When we simply do not understand how a technical system works, when we do not pay attention to it, it may be because of trust in its operation and daily use. So when technology replaces normal and ordinary invisibility, it easily fits into stories about the technologization of nature. According to these stories, science and technology have advanced to the point where we can control or depend on nature. Redefining in the terms proposed in Max Weber's book Science as a Profession, science and technology advance only to the point where the magical relationship with occult forces gives way to disillusionment and the rationalization of control. When the machine works well, we stop paying attention to it, and when nature becomes technical, we can keep all the details in a black box because we only count on the results. Apart from physicists who understand the subject, we who ride the tram have no idea how it works. We don't need to know that. It is enough to "count" on the cart's behavior and adjust our actions accordingly, but we know nothing about how to assemble the cart to move. Savages know their tools well. […] Therefore, the increase in intellectualization and rationalization does not mean an increase in general knowledge of the conditions of life. It means something else, namely to know or believe in the fact that it can be revealed at any time if it wants to, so that in principle no secret, immeasurable force encroaches, but instead - in principle - things can be controlled by calculation. (Weber, 1988, 593 ff.)

Unlike genetically modified foods that may or may not pass through our bodies and whose causality may and may not exist, unlike the sensor of nanoclays, Weber's strollers, table computers or heating devices that can be used to monitor the environmental conditions in us we haveFully macroscopic objects to our house.We can rely on them because we know that they exist, they do not exist and that they work reliably.We can burn and extinguish them, come in and get out of them without even knowing how they work, we can evaluate whether they work or do not work.No matter how many internal work and external networks users are used by technologies that provide calculated worlds, their engineering controls are more or less accompanied by schematic diagrams as such controls are implemented.On the other hand, a feature of technology is not that its use has become routine, common or "natural" in a normal sense.It really is not clear to what extent we can be "users" of it.The characteristic of technology is to act below or above the threshold of perception and control, we cannot represent its agents the way it is, we have no switches to launch or stop surgery, we do not have a direct knowledge of whether it works or spoils.The tram, reading about genetic engineering will not help.

5 Next, I will focus on the technical institutions below the sensor threshold. At the end of this chapter, I also discussed the technical method below the management threshold. (Of course, from the user's perspective, these two concepts are closely related because we cannot control what we cannot perceive.)

178

Norwegian

Table 1. Four characteristics of the qualitative definition of "domesticated technology": Technological institutions that are potentially infinite at or above the threshold of perception and control; formal criteria: when you are a black box, there is no longer any philosophical definition; technical institutions are not Experience of experience, eg: smart environments, nanoscale devices, genetically modified food. 6

As we better understand and even admire the wide-open possibilities of technology, the world has not become more transparent to individual consumers, it has become more opaque, and maintaining a sense of ownership, a sense of empowerment, responsibility, and accountability has become increasingly difficult. to control. When we turn off the operation of a macro-built-in device like a radio, only a few buttons, a dial or a screen and of course the received sound remain. We maintain representations of schematic causal relationships between inputs and outputs. But if we put genetic modification or automatic climate control in buildings into a black box, then nothing remains but the technologically altered environment itself, indistinguishable in the sense of its mere giving to the natural environment. This could even serve as an official standard for the so-called domestication technique here: if you put it in a black box, nothing remains. These four characteristics of "domestication technology" need to be further clarified, above all the relationship between "qualitative definition" and "formal standard". Qualitative definitions emphasize the notion of technological action, in other words, that something works, does things, produces technological change above or below the thresholds of human perception and control. Thus, the formal standard should be understood as "if you transfer it into a black box, nothing remains of that technical body or any input-output causality". It is important to point this out because otherwise people question the definition of whether pasteurized milk or fluoridated water is naturalized by nature or technology. After all, if we denigrate pasteurization, we have nothing but a glass of milk without seeing technological artifacts that are different from what cows produce. However, these examples help to highlight the differences discussed. Pasteurized milk and fluoridated water are the result of technological manipulation of nature in order to master it and make it more calculated, in the sense that nature has technologized them. I can count on the milk to be pasteurized, and if I imagine the technical pasteurization process, I assume it ends up with the milk. Although the milk I drink is technically manipulated, I cannot imagine that the pasteurization process has not been carried out in my body 6 The case of GM food shows that what counts as an example depends on whether the technology meets the qualitative definition (See below). For example, some people see cell phone transmission or water fluoridation as natural technologies. The release of chemically modified substances is only vaguely associated with advanced technological institutions. The effects of drugs are often thought to be limited to a person's own body - and so are our concerns about how they work.

Nationalization of technology

179

Being a subject or medium of a current technological institution, someone or something does something in me or through me without my knowledge.Of course, this is what many scientists also think of GMO.In fact, if the intervention stopped on the production of new phenotics and when genetic modification would be inert for all practical purposes when I swallowed it, then these examples of food would cease to be examples of domestication technology.However, if it appears here as a prominent example with ambient intelligence and imagined devices of nan measures, this is because this is exactly the issue at gambling in discussion of genetic engineering.Technology looks creepy because we can't assess how far it works, but somehow we have to evaluate what different sources tell us.We are aware that we cannot follow its effects, and even so -called experts, it is difficult to determine if there is a genetic modification.If there is a gray zone between the created nature and the domesticated technology, this is not due to a lack of definition, but because of our attribution of freedom of choice.For those who believe that radio waves have causality beyond transmission of signals, the atmosphere itself has an unusual effect that can influence our health imperceptibly and permanently.This concern does not emphasize the fact that technology helps us control nature and make it calculated, but the fact that the technology is already ubiquitous, with immeasurable consequences, and we are subject to it just as we are misunderstood and misunderstood.Controlled nature is the same.From all this comes the philosophical character of naturalized technology.So far, it has been claimed that this technology does not allow us to control nature, but, like the misunderstood nature, it works in the context of our actions and life, unknown to us and unknowable.Although he can have an effect on us or through us, we cannot present his behavior because we are not even aware of his presence or absence - instead of knowing it, we only know it.The threatening presence and potential efficiency of the technologies that may work behind our backs do not aim to expand our freedom or our will.Instead, it seems to be a limit, perhaps even a threat.Technological influence and intellectual sharpness have fallen apart, so technological manipulations made by man no longer imply dominance over nature, but represent nature alone.All these traits carry clear dichotomy.On the one hand is wild nature.It is not perceived, represented or understood, and in this nature there is no reason, control or will.As such, it is considered strange, unpredictable, and perhaps even dangerous.7, on the other hand, designed control and rational understanding transform wild nature into a number of calculated forces, exploiting and directing them to human goals.This dichotomy and traditional and simple, expresses the Weber's image of progress through the rationalization and disappointment of the world.Of course, judging by this photo, 7 is also completely devoid of content, a purely negative concept of nature.Only a well -understood nature can serve as a normative ideal (for example, as an unstable ecosystem).The cruel misunderstood nature that awaits the rationalization is only a guard (so far) incomprehensible processes and principles.

180

Norwegian

The purpose of technology is to free us and protect us from nature and natural needs, whether it is food and shelter, death and disease, or work and leisure. Technological nature thus begins with cooking and agriculture and continues wherever parts of nature are locked into certain technologies and devices and directed to social ends. This dichotomous view resonated with thinkers such as Karl Marx and Martin Heidegger, and found its strongest expression in Kant's distinction between noumenon and appearance, the unknowable in itself and the object of experience. Naturalized technologies are opaque and misunderstood precisely because genetic modifications, nanoparticle breathing sensors, and computers dispersed and embedded in the environment are not objects of experience. Thus, they are actually examples of ontological rather than phenomenal technologies. 8 According to Kant, noumenon or thing-in-itself is a nature that does not appear in experience, if it is possible to speak of such a nature. We cannot and do not know things in themselves or nature "as it is," with our nature as free, healthy beings perhaps being the only minor exception. This unknowability of ontology can be described as a limitation of theoretical understanding. Viewed positively, however, it represents a typical modern effort to subvert the unusual and uncanny otherness of nature. How things appear to us as phenomena in experience was constructed by the mind, subjected to mathematization and intellectual control. Unlike wild nature, these phenomena are already civilized. Therefore, if there is such a thing as an ontological technology, it is a technology that is detached from human contact, perception, experience and control, showing an uncivilized and irrational side.

Production and concept

If the technology is human creation of human knowledge, where human needs are met with human needs, then it seems firmly rooted in phenomena.At first glance, it can seem absurd to talk about technology outside human perception and experience among us.Even if we assume that an average consumer or citizen may encounter some very specific technologies that are unpredictable and creepy, things beyond their control, such as nature, only serve as a background for structuring their behavior and life, this is not safe, this is not safeTruth for those who developed and implemented this technology.One way to respond to this obvious objection is to rely on a well -known precedent, now a classic report on technology in Africa, which shows that even scientists, engineers and political decisions are facing their biological aspects.

The following is a summary of Nordmann (2005a), which here is the first approach to the problem.

nationalization of technology

181

As an engineer, at least as a nuclear weapons engineer, we become all-powerful - this sentence is just a metaphor. But as intellectuals, we cannot compete with our saints. In other words, our technology has made us in such a situation that we can no longer imagine (imagine) what we can produce (repair) and complete (adjustment). What does this difference between concepts and production (Hrstellung) mean? It means that in a new and terrible sense "we no longer know what we are doing"; we have reached the limit of responsibility. Because "responsibility" is only the recognition of human behavior, and the consequence is that the person has foreseeable (Vorugellt) and can actually foresee the consequences. (Anders 1972, 73 v.)

Günther Anders reflects the incomparability or absolute disproportion between the scale of human action and the scale on which its influence takes place.At the level of institutions, perfectly imaginable technological failures or human answers to the observed threats are firmly rooted in our experience of the phenomenal world.In a completely different way, the end of humanity is completely predictable and yet completely unthinkable.When Günther Anders distinguishes restoration from restoration, the technology that causes the extinction of people and imaginative control that does not keep up, he repeatedly puts it in the context of Kantovo philosophy.Kant's criticism aimed to show how limited our intellect was, but Kant failed to predict that some of the possible effects of nuclear technology created by a man cannot accommodate within the boundaries of phenomenal experience and understanding, but transcended them or completely transcended them (An Dess, 1972), 33 and beyond, 38, 73) Anders wrote in 1956 that in the "new and terrible feeling" we no longer know what we are doing.Therefore, he does not think of the well -known and ubiquitous unintentional consequences of human behavior (including technological interventions), nor to our cognitive limitations in monitoring the full effect of our actions.What says new and scary is that humanity follows a technological vision that calls technology to get out of control, a species that best acts as a means of deterrent when the upcoming consequences are completely out of control.What is new is a calculated intention to create absolute incomparability between the calculating balance of weapons and the invertebable end of civilization.Anders thus distinguishes the practical unimaginability of an infinitely long chain of effects after any human action and the absolute unimaginability of the infinite size of a single, completely predictable and current effect of nuclear attack.Genetic engineering, nanotechnology and smart environments bring a similar incomparability.For these physical technologies, from the fact that their short -term or medium -term action is not affected by our sensory modalities, it follows that their activities are or absolutely small or absolutely large, which is not in accordance with our conventional methods of determining relative sizes.For natural seismic movements that can eventually lead to an earthquake, ergonomics thus add more causal processes in action behind us who can but do not have to have catastrophic consequences.We should at least try to assume how much impact we have on the world.[…] Today's "little" is significantly different from the "small" that dominates the European tradition, the Christian concept of "evil".[…] What makes us bad is

182

Norwegian

We, as agents, cannot measure the product of our actions.Our products and what we can and did because of their owners [...] This difference is unique historically and therefore unique in the history of morality.Failure is the imagination that is "weak" and here "Spirit" (Anders, 1972, 34-36)

After pointing out that we don't even remember the things we deliberately set in motion, Anders is talking about the weakness of the mind here. Both formulations point to what I call ontological technology here, which is not inherently subject to experience and understanding.

Fear of alienation and globalization

Günther Anders' diagnosis of the new "malum" played an important role in his criticism, especially of nuclear technology. Current discussions thus far suggest that perhaps a more general criticism of ontology technology is that it is somewhat backwards in the direction suggested by Bill Joy and others (Joy, 2000). Whenever Joy seems to care about the survival of the human species, Anders points out that we can't be responsible if we can't imagine what we're bringing to the world. In fact, Joy's question about why the future might not need us is more about our surrender of autonomy and responsibility than physical survival. Where technological progress and the continuing trend of miniaturization have brought discontinuity, made the world less transparent and narrowed the scope of control, this so-called progress must be criticized as actually regressive because it makes We are in a relative state of nature at least in comparison to the consequences of our own technological interventions. This is no longer a critique of what we do to nature in the name of social and economic control. Rather, it is a critique of what we do to ourselves when we surrender control to ubiquitous technological systems. If concepts of alienation or ecological integrity can support critiques of technologized nature, then concepts of globalization and colonialism can support critiques of naturalized technologies (see Nordmann, 2005c). With the second kind of criticism comes a special kind of fear. The classic project of a technological nature evokes a fear that finds countless expressions in literature and philosophy, in Lewis Mumford and Herbert Marcuse, Martin Heidegger or Michel Foucault. In his works, a metaphysical fear that makes its demands on the machine and absorbs into its system all natures, including human nature. Domesticated technologies, by contrast, feed our oldest and perhaps deepest metaphysical fears of wild, rational natures that have yet to be cultivated, rationalized, domesticated, domesticated, and now appear to us in the form of previously impossible technologies. No one type of fear is specific, so it is often considered paranoid or irrational. At the same time, huge amounts of government spending are aimed at dispelling the so-called irrational fear that genetically modified food could be diverted to nanotechnological devices. However, if it turns out to be genetic

nationalization of technology

183

Both engineering and nanotechnology, which produce permanent technological institutions within the reach of human perception and control, seem to inevitably evoke the same fear or dread. If this fear is aimed at establishing normative criteria for evaluating a particular technology and designing suitable ones, it need not be considered irrational. Günther's different ways encourage us to learn to imagine our own work, because we can only take responsibility if we can imagine our actions and their consequences. Nationalized technology is regressive insofar as it returns us to a state of ignorance about the technological interventions we face, perhaps perceiving them as misunderstood in nature. Otherwise, engineers call to reflect the purpose of the technology and prevent its decline. For example, if you're designing a device that can move, affect things, let alone replicate at the nanoscale, you'd also need to learn how to track and monitor, sense and control it. For nationalized technologies, we will have to discover the limiting technologies in order to reconnect them to the scale of human behavior. Such limiting techniques include interface design, political determination to design norms, and even conceptual or literary techniques to achieve consensus and socialize gentlemanly techniques. 99

surprise and control

So far, nanotechnology, as an entity or naturalization technology, is discussed only on the basis of an incredible nano, and is discussed according to the absolute little hours we tried to imagine. However, there is a completely different criticism of nanotechnology.self -organization. Non -organization is a natural process that systematically reaches a higher level.For example, when the ecosystem of pollution finally reaches a critical point and suddenly dies. The Dupuy Dupuy said: We now know what a complicated system is (for example, a molecular network connected by a chemical response or a food system), it is precisely the cause of fragile.Meet him.[……] Behind some critical points, they suddenly turned into other things, completely demolished or formed other types of systems in a way of changing the material phase.These systems can have human beings.Very reluctant features. This discomfort in mathematics is called a disaster. The outlying loss of this elasticity gives a complex system characteristic.Any engineer cannot turn it into an artificial system without firing it immediately: the warning will not sound, until it's too late. (Dupil, 2004)

Dupuy's sentiments were echoed by Swiss Re, who commented on nanotechnology that you can't rely on surprising new properties.

See Nordmann (2005b) for a more detailed description of the concept of "bordering" (such as giving shape, purpose, direction, technology and social background).

184

Norwegian

If you want a technology that can be expected and not faced with surprises (HETT, 2004, 40-44). Naturally, Dupuy may worry that any successful technical system must withstand a test of robustness and toughness.Dupuy just pointed out that it is difficult to ultimately maintain galvanized technology. Yes, he and I, although some amazing, I noticed that the most advanced technological vision in computer sciences, genetics and nanotechnology turned to the border, where technology becomes magic and returnsBack back to us back to us back our place of departure, that is, for a charming, creepy natural state, when we first think about control and budget and even controlled, we are already unbearable. As for technical and philosophy, it is carefullyMore reasons to implement these technical ideas.

AmaTo referrals, I., 1999, Nanotechnology -The Honor of the World Council of Science and Technology, Nano Science, Engineering and Technology Institution Work Group, Washington.anders, G., 1972, Endzeit und Zeitende: Gedankenüberdie Atomare, Baker.b.B. and Guchet, X., 2005, what is the sentence? Nano -Machine and his philosophy, university in Paris (unpublished manuscript) Center.CLEMENT (A.ACM SICM SICPC Note 1 (3): 14-22, view according toThe micro-account is as important as people. Dupuy, J.-P., 2004, "Complexity and uncertainty", in: a new technical expert group of distinctive visibility: the latest comments and related works, Brussels, pp. 153–167, http:// Europe. EU.int/comm/comm/research/Conferences/2004/ntw/pdf/Soa_en.pdf (25 January 2006) HET, A., 2004, Nanotechnical-Smarting Substance, Many Parties, Swiss CompanyReinsure, Zurich. Hooke, R., 1665, Microphoto or, for the production of mirrors in the mirror of increasing glass, some physiological descriptions of the smallest corpse: with observation and problems, Martyn and Allestry, London. Jones, R., 2004, Soft Machine, Oxford University Press, Oxford.-Technical view of the world: a new space of the old universe, "IEEE Technol.Soc.Allow.23 (4): 48-54.Nordmannnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnn., A., 2005a, Noumenal Technology: About Nanovo Little Compact, Technology 8 (3): 3-23.Nordmann, A., 2005b, Nanotechnology: Integration and Integration of Nano Technology and Nanotehn, published: 9. Japan-night seminar: border of nano-science, German gesellschaft der der jSPS-zin, Bonn, p.105–119.Nordmann, A., 2005c, Wohin Die Reve: Nanotechnology, in: Unknown MTheits Sign Technology, Gerhard Gamm and Andreas Hetzel Editor, Transcript, Copy, Bielefeld, p.103–123.Rossmann, T. and Troopea, ed. K: Aktuelle Forschungsergebennisse, Kind, Engineering and GeisteSwissenchaften, Berlin, A., 2006, Potenziale und Anwengospective der Bionik: Dienähezur is natural, as a random opportunity., 1988, Gesammelteaufsätzezurwissenschaftslehre, J.C.B.MOHR, Tübingen.

Redesigning Humans Rise of the Cyborg, a Desired Goal? Daniela Serge and Kevin Warwick

Summary The idea that people are not perfect has a long history. But now, for the first time in history, a few people, mostly scientists, have previously unimaginable powers to change people. The redesign of humans is often the result of an engineering-science complex called "convergent technology," which includes biotechnology, information technology, nanotechnology, and cognitive science. However, here we are more concerned with electronic devices embedded directly in the human body. After describing what might happen to humanity, we also end with a brief comment on how wonderful such a future would be, since we have two different perspectives.

In Western society - in another society the definition is different from our definition - the innate definition of human beings is taken for granted, this is our common background. Since it is deeply rooted in our culture, it does not need to be an effective guide. In other words, designers are always (in fact, all of us) assumed about people (descriptive) and what they should (standardize). This value of sharing is even if they do not necessarily understand them. Until a few years ago, the definition of this standardization was a dream, without the results of its own experience, and the design process was limited to our environment. Historically, some people (mostly scientists) have quite unimaginable abilities and can become reality by changing the normative definition of human beings. Compared to common thoughts, biotechnology is not the only way to achieve. In future, human beings are not only connected with biotechnology, but also with the development of a number of technological sciences. Biotechnology is only the visible tip of the iceberg

D. Cerqui, University of Lausanne K. Warwick, University of Reading

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

185

186

D. Search for K. Warwick

A broader and more powerful techno-scientific complex called "converged technologies" including biotechnology, information technology, nanotechnology and cognitive science. Not content with using science and technology only for therapeutic purposes, to overcome disabilities, we also seek to use these fusion technologies to improve normal skills1, whose standards evolve with technology. As a result, the definition of what is considered normal is constantly changing, and what is currently considered an improvement may tomorrow be considered completely therapeutic (Cerqui, 2002). If we continue to work in this way, we should be aware that humans can simply disappear and create a new species built according to standards that need to be clarified, because these technologies are both collective and individual works that are "more concerned with the future of our species than the individuals who belong" (Hottois, 1999, 8, our translation). While human redesigns are often the result of fusion technology, they are more about electronics that are implanted directly into the body. With the recent emergence of information technologies that are implanted directly into the human body, the threshold of quality has been crossed, since these technological scientific developments have far-reaching consequences. Our main interest here is a type of cyborg, a half-human, half-machine entity that has now actually realized the movement of the human brain through implanted technology. Our choice is not unimportant because both authors are engaged in research in this area. KW is the first person to have a computer directly connected to his nervous system using an implanted chip. Meanwhile, DC is an anthropologist interested in the future of humanity in the era of robots. We believe that this particular case of redesign is a good example that reflects large ethical and philosophical questions, as it is clear that through technological improvements, the overall capabilities of a cyborg can be improved relative to an independent human. Additional sensor input, remote control of prosthetics via the Internet from brain signals and telegraphic forms of direct communication between two human brains have been achieved. In the long term, it is realistically expected to lead to significant improvements in basic human abilities in memory, mathematics, multidimensionality and communication. After describing what might happen to humanity, we also end with a brief comment on how wonderful such a future would be, since we have two different perspectives. We come from different backgrounds and ideas and have different levels of optimism about the future of humans and cyborgs.

1 2002 The National Foundation for Science and the Ministry of Trade announced a report on the 500 pages, which were very clear: "Bainbridge and Roco (2002).

redesign human nature

187

into a new species?

The current technological and scientific discoveries, artifacts approach the human body and even merge with it.The resulting "Kiborg" 2 may have different forms, depending on the balance between human and technological components.An example of a robot, part of people, part of the technology, is a good illustration of the fundamental values of our society, the direction we behave in accordance with these values and what new human or inhumane entities we go to build.Today it seems that the most important value (although not mentioned often), which supports all these technological scientific development our ability to obtain information and interactions with them.In the so -called "Information Society", most people think faster access is better.It can be seen that the best way to finally improve the speed of approaching people and technology to reduce or even eliminate the inherent delay of the human-stroj interface.In Cerqui and Warwick (2005), the focus is on the side scientific and technical aspects, which is why it is not further elaborated here.In this chapter, we are more concerned about the downward transformation of new value into empirical results: that is, new species that we humans will create.The aim of the Information Society - connecting people3 - will soon be realized, and people will physically and mentally become part of the network.According to Mazlish (1993), humanity has experienced four great periods of the revolution in its history.First - Copernicus - defines a continuum between man and nature;Second - Darwinism - shows that man lives the same way as all other creatures on earth;Third - with Freud's morality - connects the inner continuity of man with the discovery of psychological principles.The fourth - this one we currently live in - defines us as part of something wider.When people are connected to a large network, collective intelligence occurs spontaneously, as intelligence occurs in individuals by connecting neurons.According to Dyens, the human condition is an outdated concept, and suggests that it is talked about "intelligent state" (2000, 20).According to him, people will disappear as individuals, become part of the "intelligent system" in which people are only part of a larger organism, a "plural" being, made up of skin, mind, insects, organs, machines.and culture "(2000, p. 158). Those who believe that human beings, as we know them, have reached the border and now have to cross the threshold (cf. 2 Cyborg has different definitions, for some technology you do not need to connect with us in order toCreated Kiborga. For example, according to Clark (2003), we are already cyborti if we use technological devices that cannot be installed. Furthermore, Clynes and Klin (1960) The first specified definition includes the types of modifications associated with technological devices - biochemical eg.pharmacologically induced changes. Here we use a word in restrictive sense to describe organisms that are partly a machine and partly people. 3 World Information Society Society meetings (Geneva, 2003; Tunisia, 2005) are a very good illustration of beliefs that connected people shouldto solve various problems in the world.

188

D. In search of K. Warwick

for example Arnould, 2001 or Soriano, 2001) may be correct. According to them, a new life with a modified physical body will soon be born. Contrary to what one might think (Sfez, 1995), this phenomenon is not limited to biotechnology: information technology is also part of human transformation, although many authors distinguish biotechnology from other types of technology as having a different underlying logic. For example, Mandocio argues that posthumanity can be the result of two different technologies. The first has to do with genetics, and the second with cyborgs. According to him, cyborgs are less dangerous because they are reversible and because they are not hereditary (2000, 190). He sees significant differences between these technologies and concludes that robotics, genetics and nanotechnology should not be confused for analysis. He is particularly critical of Joy (2000), who claims that any organism created by these techniques is capable of self-reproduction. Actually, Joy seems to be right: there is only one basic logic designed to create life. Therefore, the information society should not be defined by information technology alone: it is a hybrid of information technology, biotechnology (Castells, 1998; Escobar, 1994; Guillebaud, 2001) and emerging nanotechnology due to their shared obsession with information defined as the code that holds everything (see Cerqui, 2004). Defined in this way, the main goal of the information society is to create new entities that can process information better than humans do today. In fact, it was announced several years ago, when the Bureau predicted that our future would be intrinsically linked to computer-induced complexity (1969, 543), although it may not have predicted that we would merge with it. According to Beaune (1980), machine intelligence is synonymous with death because it implies the inner coldness of the warmth of life. Instead, for many researchers, it is a way to prolong life or even live forever. It pushes the boundaries of life while creating inanimate entities or keeping death as far away as possible. Biotechnology, information technology, nanotechnology and cognitive science are clearly related to immortality, despite their clear differences. This is obvious in the case of biotechnology, because it is the control of life in terms of matter. But this kind of immortality seems to have become less attractive than spiritual immortality. Moreover, because of biotechnology's ability to modify flesh, it can be a tool to turn the main wish of IT people into reality. Information will be integrated directly into people, who will become part of a wider network of exchange, a sort of living cell of the Internet. Immortality has long been defined as physical life or soul. Today, it is increasingly defined by information and ideas. The idea is that our thoughts can be transferred to a computer (Moravec, 1988). In fact, the idea does not seem to be considered entirely incompatible with the Christian faith: Crevier (1993) argues that, given that Christ rose from the dead in a new body, there is no reason why we should not live in machines. Augé emphasizes that autocorrelation is Paradoxically, life and death are always thought to arise from the same starting point: bodies (2001, 441), but it is more accurate to say that both increasingly exist without bodies.

redesign human nature

189

In this context, social scientists and philosophers had to think more about what we are than what we do. Therefore, it is crucial to develop an ethical reflection, considering an anthropological perspective that many researchers in this field might consider irrelevant: the preservation of humanity is not usually a criterion used to determine what a laboratory should and should not develop. For example, empirical research on the topic4 shows that even if it is self-evident that every element of the human being can be theoretically controlled and technologically reproduced, the future of human emotions may, in the eyes of some people, be somewhat doubtful. Opinions differ on what would happen to man without human emotion: would he exist in an improved version, more rational and less emotional. Or: Will it be replaced by another creature with more developed intelligent traits? For some, emotion is part of the ontological definition of a human being. However, there is no reason to continue being human. In this context, the evolutionary term "posthuman" can be used. For others, emotion is not necessarily a separate part of the definition, it is rationally based. In this case, we can develop more rationality and emotion, becoming more human in the process. In both cases, despite the marked differences in the true descriptions of people, the normative definition is the same: we will become more and more rational. Seen in this light, it is argued that since our brains are limited, we must naturally find a way to increase our mental abilities. To achieve this goal, we have two options: "internal or external silicone extension" (Cochrane, 1997, 8). Let us now look at the possible consequences of this increase in rational ability and the different ways in which it can be understood.

Naina's metamorphosis and black

In 1965, Lero-Gourn claimed that people must be conditioned to be weaker than artificial brains because their teeth are weaker than the grinding process, and flying skills weaker than the aircraft.He wonders what kind of future wears humanity in a world where technological devices are more effective in every respect than people.As an anthropologist and paleontologist, he deals with the future and past of humanity.It takes up a very wide historical view of today's humanity and creates assumptions about what could happen in the future.One of his assumptions was that Homo Sapiens could disappear and become something better, but at least differently (1965, 60).This view is confirmed by those who currently predict the appearance of post -human.For example, according to Guillaume, technology is likely to eliminate the human dispute.Despite the complaints of the Ethics Commission, the human reproduction is

See Cerqui (2006) for more details on this research material.

190

D. Search for K. Warwick

they become more and more artificial. Artifacts will one day enhance even intellectual abilities. Of course, today it is difficult to imagine such a radical and irreversible anthropological mutation" (1999, 15, our translation) The artist Stelarc believes that natural evolution has reached its limit and, according to him, we are now faced with post-evolutionary demands that must be based on parameters of our new environment to adapt themselves to be more compatible with the machine" (quoted in Fillion, 2000, V, our translation). Wiener shares this view and argues that our environment has changed and that we must now adapt in order to live in it (cf. Edelman, 1985, 125). The cybernetic Wiener of the 1940s had a huge influence on new designs for today's humans - humans and machines working as complete systems, with sensory feedback, communication and control. The most important aspect is the system as a whole, not the subcomponents within it Instantaneous travel through space to and from distant planets, even some in our solar system, takes much longer than a typical lifetime. Because of this, we must adapt our bodies to such needs, in order to understand that these new perspectives give a different definition of what it means to be human. It can even be said that there is no reason to die anymore (Stellarc, 1992, 28). According to Cochrane, our next step in evolution could be "adding wet software (brains) using suitable silicon as an intelligent medium. Future evolution will then be driven by those in nature. Further Darwinian evolution may lead to a mixture of carbon and silicon At some point, biological systems are intrinsically limited in the sense that they encounter fundamental physical constraints that limit or prevent further development in a particular direction" (1997, p. 7). In this way of thinking, two humanized machines (eg, self-organizing computers or robots) and robotic humans (eg, robots) could be the next step in evolution, in which case qualitative discontinuities are associated with the important problem of improving intelligence. Moravec firmly believed that technology would replace humans (1988) and agreed with Kurzweil in calling these machines "spiritual children". They generally have a very optimistic vision of that future, unlike Joy (co-founder of Sun Microsystems), who published a paper clearly titled: "Why the Future Doesn't Need Us" (2000). He considered that the ideas of Cuvel and Moravec are unrealistic and prepare a future that is completely useless. 5 Contrary to these ideas, some authors consider it highly improbable that robots and machines can replace humans - what Kemp describes as an ontological absurdity (Kemp, 1997). , 256). In such a vision, it is necessary to assess which machines should do what

5 His thoughts were inspired by Theodore Kaczynski, aka "Unibomber", a scientist who withdrew from everyday social life and became an anti-technological terrorist (relevant For living history, see Lecourt, 2003).

redesign human nature

191

They do more than they can (see Weizenbaum, 1976). Another humanitarian, Fukuyama, suggested rather romantically that governments should create rules to regulate biotechnology to ensure that people do not disappear (2002, p. 29). 6 There are serious issues of power and control in this situation.

Become "more human"

A completely different way in which the development of our reason will make us more humane. This is the plastic vision of human beings, which means that people can adapt to a new environment (Packard, 1978) .lero-Gourhan believes that "species will not grow old and develop or disappear"(1965, 266, our translation) .what, except that he wants to know if people will disappear, he also makes a hypothesis about our social capacity. He believes that they are assuming that infinite, reasonable evolution can cause people to live in a completely artificial environment,where it will become a station in other cells. In this case, we have to find a new limited word that would add "homosexuality" instead of "homo sapiens" (1965, 267). Many others also hold this view.They believe that people will not disappear and will only appear in a new form. In an example, according to Scaridilia, a new digital person will be born because "today's technology creates human nature tomorrow" (1992, 179, our translation). This will be a different human natureWe now know, but still human. In this view, technology can be separated from the human body or integrated into meat without any change: they are still part of humanization. This means that human evolution is not only biological, but expands and in theCultural aspects. In this moment, with the development of new technologies, it becomes more humane, and the development of every new technology is a step towards better human nature. The test is still believed that the human state is a multi -phase process rather than in a static state.to change and redefine. At this point of view, the humanization process is not complete yet, and paleontologists in the future can consider homo sapiens a very primitive human form after thousands of years. What would you think of a pensmine skeleton? Is this still homo sapiens?This stage can only speculate that there is only one specific point: Homo sapiens is a kind of endangered species, and most people think it may be a tool for their death to become vital technology. "The sword of life is wisdom.As we survive with swords like other creatures, we will also die under the sword of the robot "(Warwick, 2000, p. 213).

6 Fukuyama's book focuses on biotechnology. However, in our opinion, it is impossible to distinguish them from other technological achievements, so his argument touches on all of them.

192

D. In search of K. Warwick

Golden future?

The author fully agrees with the explanation for the disappearance of Homo sapiens. When you consider how dependent our society is on the internet, it's hard to imagine what would happen if the network went down - due to tampering, design or failure. Almost our entire economic system would collapse and we would have to build a new one. Such a process requires a lot of time and effort. Furthermore, machines, and technology in general, are considered synonymous with development and progress, and some (Gras, 2003) even consider them more important than humans. So, can we think about them independently of their social and economic systems? That would certainly be seen as a step backwards. The option is unthinkable. On the one hand, the authors agree with the statement that technology has become so central to our individual and collective lives that it is difficult to consider an alternative — which means they agree with the current state of affairs. On the other hand, the authors disagree with what should be done. KW believes that if we want the future, we have no choice but to merge with technology. According to him, the survival of the Internet means melting. In his second experiment, after implanting electrodes that can receive messages from the brain and send them to a computer, his nerve signals were sent over the Internet to control a remote robot. He believes that future humans will be a subspecies, useless in a society run by machines. So, to prevent him from becoming useless, he decided to transform himself into a cyborg (see Warwick, 2002). He looks forward to being the first of a new breed of cyborg supps. Instead, the District of Columbia believes that we should look for other options and that humans should be preserved as a species. The process by which we find ourselves is far from natural evolution. The idea that nature has become more complex since single-celled organisms became multi-organisms does not convince her. One might think that, unlike other species, humans can think and make objects. This means that what we build - whatever it is - is the result of our choices, not evolutionary pressures. Evolution is only used as an argument to justify our choices. There are only a few researchers and scientists, like KW, who openly claim that we must become something other than humans. Furthermore, only KW is currently experimenting with new technologies that could lead to such a goal. However, there are many researchers and scientists (working on the same kind of technology as him or others) who are convinced that the devices they build are just neutral tools. They need to understand that the difference between what they do and what KW promotes is not a difference in kind, but a difference in degree. In fact, they are part of the same project in our future. As mentioned earlier, KW's project was to connect his brain to the Internet, which we only implicitly achieved when we built higher-level connections for faster Internet access.

redesign human nature

193

Some among social scientists believe that social sciences should be strictly descriptive.Others, like DC, obviously think that the description is only part of their job and that they should be dedicated to defending what is important to them.From this perspective, we are all responsible for what will happen in the future: researchers who are especially involved in the construction of our future are clearly responsible for what they do.But users who accept the use of the equipment delivered to them completely share this responsibility.DC is no exception - she is part of her company, she has a computer on her desk and a cellphone in her purse - but she believes we can't just let it go without moving away from our own article practice.This means trying to predict possible scenarios, analyze them, ask yourself if they are really the future we want and warn us, if necessary, to the possible consequences of our current choices.In other words, our future must be a collective choice, the result of interaction and confrontation of different positions.The current original collaboration between two authors, a Kiborga who happily faces the disappearance of humanity and anthropologist deeply related to the suffering of our homo sapiens, is the first step in the right direction to open the discussion of our problems.The future can and should be.

Nietzsche

When determining our future, the possible results of the investigation may be appropriate. You are in a member of a new variety. If you are a smart machine or a robot -you can choose. There is always a group of people, and there are many, whether you like people.have always been the main form of life on Earth.This fact exacerbates the situation and are not satisfied with the placement of their views in a new reproduction position, although they are largely responsible for their origin.The essentially can destroy each member of the new varieties as much as possible. Exhibits of these people who are inferior, people, if they can destroy them a new race, and then people will again become the main form of life -may not be a hash next time.other members of the new variety? Maybe you may be kind to people. Even if they are intelligent, you don't respect them, you may allow them to make all important decisions. But it seems impossible. Why are you really kind to these people? If there is half a chance, they willMaybe try to end your half from a practical point of view.Life fully gives people all the power of all forces, because they can easily confront new varieties. Internity.After all, people are hard to hit the behavior of new varieties.

194

D. In search of K. Warwick

As far as humans are concerned, it is possible to go much further by considering man himself and deriving well-known human behavior. Nietzsche (1961) said, "All living things have hitherto created something outside themselves." He asked: "What is a man's monkey? Laughter or painful discomfort? Thus man will become superhuman: Lol Sound or painful discomfort." If we' When talking about a new breed, you can understand Superman. So at this point, as a human being, our best estimate of how the new race will treat humans in the future is by seeing how humans treat humans, how much smarter humans have evolved than ourselves. How do people treat chimpanzees and other animals? Do we see them as brothers? Do we elect them to the government? Do we follow their orders or treat them as equals? Of course we didn't. Indeed, why should we? After all, they are not as smart as humans. It would be embarrassing to have an orangutan as prime minister. What people actually do with apes and other evolutionary ancestors is that she shoots them, puts them in cages, removes their living environment and stares at the zoo from a safe distance. Collectively, we abuse other animals to make our own lives more comfortable, using their bodies for food or to make glue. Incredibly, until recently foxes were hunted and killed for fun. For example, humans are dealing with beings who are intellectually but more competent than themselves. We keep some very happy animals as pets. In fact, apes may not be the same threat humans have posed to new breeds over the years – we'd hate to see a group of apes roaming the streets of New York trying to eliminate a human or two. However, in many cases, people hunt animals en masse to destroy them. In fact, we can expect new types of superintelligence to rule. He will try to achieve this physically and mentally. This is the sword that humans use to determine and maintain the position we are in, and it will be that the new breeds that evolve from humans will use the sword that the newly discovered humans hold as subordinates. -porten (Warwick, 2004). When discussing the creation of new robotic species, the possibilities are truly significant. Many may not like the idea of playing the role of a subspecies. But what can they do? Conversely, many others (such as KW) will find it upgradeable and find the droid extremely attractive. Shouldn't that be crucial if we believe in the freedom of the individual to choose his own destiny? Now, must people defend their goodness and protect what we have before it's too late?

Reference Augé, M., 2001., The Glorious Body, u: The Utopia of Perfect Health: Colloquium of Cerisy, L. Sfez, ur., PUF, Parijs. Arnould, J., 2001, Icarus's Second Chance: The Ethics of Space, Napomena urednika. du Cerf, Pariz.

redesign human nature

195

Bainbridge, W. and Roco, M., ed., 2002, convergent technology for improving human performance: nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science, National Science Foundation, Arlington.Beaune, J.-C., 1980, automatic and his cell phones, Flammarion, Paris.Bureau, J., 1969, Era Logic, Laffont, Paris.Castells, M., 1998, Network company, Part 1: Information Age, Fayad, Paris.Cerqui, D., 2002, the future of humanity in the hybrid age: anthropological analysis, Eth.And information.Technology.4: 101-108.Cerqui, D., 2004, from Turing to the Information Society, in: Alan Turing: Life and Heritage of the Great Thinker, Edited by C. Teuscher, Springer, Berlin, p.59-74.Cerqui, D., 2006, people, machines, cyborgs: Information paradigm in technical imaginary (working title), Labor et Fides (Collection of Champ Ethique), Geneva, in preparation.Cerqui, D. and Warwick, K. 2005. Can I also bridge the gap?, In: Proceedings of the Cepe 2005 Conference (Computer Ethics: A Philosophical Inquiry), University of Twente, Netherlands.Clark, A., 2003, Born Kiborg: Um, Technology and Future of Human Intelligence, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Clynes, M. I Kline, N., 1960, Cyborgs and Space, Space Travel 27 (7): 74-76.Cochrane, P., 1997, Traveler tips, Orion, London Crevier, D., 1993, looking for artificial intelligence, Flammarion, Paris.Dyens, O., 2000, Meat and Metal.Human evolution: Technology takes over, VLB, Montreal.Edelman, B., 1985., nature and subject of Law, Laws 1: 125 - 142. Escobar, A., 1994., Welcome to Cyberia: Anthropological Notes on Cyberculture, Curr.Answer.35 (3): 211-231.Fillion, O., 2000, Stelarc or Morphing Body, Le Monde Interactif, 20 December: V. Fukuyama, F., 2002, End of Humanity: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution, La Table Ronde, Paris.Gras, A., 2003, the fragility of power.Freedom from technological control, Fayad, Paris.Guillaume, M., 1999, Network Empire, Descartes, Paris.Guillebaud, J.-C., 2001, principles of humanity, Seuil, Paris.Hottois, G., 1999, Proceedings from the philosophy of bioethics and biopolitics, Vrin, Paris.Kemp, P., 1997, irreplaceable, les editions du cerf, Paris.Joy, B., 2000, why not need us, Wired 8.04.Lecourt, D., 2003, Human Post Human, Puf, Paris.Leroi-Gourhan, A., 1965, gestures and words (II).Memory and Rhythm, Albin Michel, Paris.Mandosio, J.-M., 2000, after a breakdown.Notes on Neotechnological Utopia, editor, from Encyclopédie des Nuisances, Paris.Mazlish, B., 1993, fourth discontinuity: Koivolution of man and machine, Yale University Press, New Haven.Moravec, H., 1988, Mind Children: The Future of Robotic and Human Intelligence, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma Nietzsche, F., 1961, so he spoke Zarathustra, Penguin Classics, London Packard, V., 1978, the refurbishedMan, Calmann-Lévy, Paris.Scargli, V., 1992., by digital man?, In: intangible society: design, culture and technology in the postmodern world, M. Diani, ed., Princice-Hall / Simon and Schuster, Englwood Cliffs, NJ, p.1992, according to digital man?179-191 (Display, Other).SFEZ, L., 1995., Perfect health: Criticism of new utopia, Paris Sey.Soriano, P. and Finkielkraut, A., 2001, Internet, disturbing ecstasy, thousand and one night, Paris.Stelarc, 1992, composite portrait of the machine, L'AUTRE Journal 27: 24-29.Warwick, K., 2000, Qi: The Quest for Intelligence, Piatkus, London.Warwick, K., 2002, I, Cyborg, Century, London.Warwick, K., 2004, March of the Machines, University of Illinois Press, Urbana-Champaign.Weizenbaum, J., 1976, Computer power and human reason, WH Freeman, San Francisco.

Will people design revelations - the future of humanity?Nothing more than melo-martin

present

The appearance of genetic technology asks several questions about its legal, ethical and social implications.Issues of discrimination, better medicine, moral position, approach, family responsibilities, racial relations and parental responsibilities are discussed regarding genetic testing, genet transmission and genetic improvement.In new discoveries and new discussions, bioethics are struggling to balance the responsibility for considering the theoretical opportunities that current technological progress could create with a responsibility to tell if such theoretical opportunities are possible at all.(Parens, 2004) The purpose of this chapter is to argue that bioethicists dealing with gene improvement technologies have not been able to achieve this balance.This failure partly stems from inadequate understanding of human biology.Not only do the advocates and critics of genetic improvement have the wrong assumptions about the role of gene in human biology, they also have the wrong beliefs on knowledge production in biological sciences the devotion to the possible consequences of a problem that balances concern with responsibility for evaluating these capabilities.

On the way to the postman?

The reinforcement of human genes is usually defined as things that are considered manipulating genes that are considered to be normal human characteristics -physical, psychological, intelligence and morality -Opravak or maintenance of good health. Improvement can be attempted to change in the physical cells -so that only the influence of a particular personor a kind that accepts the intervention

I. de Melo-Martin, Will Coronar Medical College

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

197

198

Melo-Martin 的 I.

Or genetic modification - affecting future generations.Since my discussion focuses on the possibility of people to create new posthumous species, beings that are so far from current people we can no longer recognize them as people, I will primarily focus on the latest genetic type of intervention.As with many other discussions on biotechnology, there has been polarization among those who believe in the development and use of human ability and trait technology (Hughes, 2004; Bostrom, 2003; Sock, 2002; Silver, 1997) evenand forced (Savulescu, 2005, and Cerqui and Warwick in this section, although cerqui is actually critical of that paragraph) and those who consider such interventions to threat to human dignity (Habermas, 2003; KAS, 2003; Fukuyama, 2002;Annas et al., 2002).In both cases, however, there seems to be a consensus that genetic improvement is people, far from being a difficult thing, perhaps to a great extent even a matter of science fiction, just a matter of time.Thus, the debate is run on risks and benefits, the need for regulation or importance of financing these technologies.What I am trying here is that those who oppose the technology of improving genes and those who greet the technology of improving the gene understood human biology.First, both groups have the wrong assumptions about the role of genes in the development of human traits and behavior.Furthermore, both neglect the relevance of our social environment as a causal contribution to the judgment of these traits.But their misunderstanding of human biology also stems from taking for almost some assumptions that the biological theory tells us about human nature.It is not surprising that those participating in discussions about the relationship between genetics and human traits agree that genetic determinism is incorrect, even if hypothetically rejects such determinism, and sometimes it is difficult to understand their claims.The type of detergent tendency is what some called "complete information" and "useless intervention" version of genetic determinism (Kaplan, 2000, 11-12).The first version confirmed that our genes determine everything about us.The second thread says that for the traits that have a genetic component of intervention is powerless.However, many people who are not considered genetic determinists believe in another version of genetic determinism.In this version, although the characteristics with partial genetic etiology best understand as primarily genetic, only through targeted interventions we can avoid or control the expression of genes for such qualities.Even when genes are not deterministic, they are considered more necessary than their other biological, environmental and social mats (Gannet, 1997, 403-419).Without the premise of genetic determinism, it is difficult to understand many arguments used in a hearing of human genetic improvement and posthuman creation.Therefore, some claim, any form of genetic engineering excludes the future that would otherwise be uncertain with natural genetic lottery.Some argue that when we design people with any form of prenatal genetic intervention, we also shape their future.inside

designer

199

Habermas' words: "[...] Genetic programmed persons cannot be more considered the only authors of their own life history" (2003, 79).Genetic manipulation calls into question the moral identity of current and future people.Also, Fukuyama claims that genetically improved technologies ignore the notion of humanity, which is basically human dignity and human rights.By messing in the genetic composition, we risk undermining the ideals of individual autonomy and undermining the foundations of moral equality (2002, II part).Others defended the claim that genetic modifications can be considered a crime against humanity because they change the nature of humanity by taking human evolution into their own hands and focusing on post-human development (Annas et al., 2002).).It is important that those who encourage posthuman development have a similar understanding of the role of genetics in human life.They hope that we will charge the use of biotechnology wherever possible in the end becomes creatures larger than today's people.They want to create opportunities to live longer and be healthier, to improve our memory and intellectual abilities, memory, abstract thinking, social intelligence, cognition, numerical abilities or musicality, to purify our emotional experience we experienceis our subjective awareness of welfare and, in general, a higher degree of control over their own life (Bustrom, 2003).Some accept intellect that can read the book in a few seconds (Bostrom, 2003), propose the interaction of Brein-Tot-Brein (Hughes, 2004), or are the means of an irrational drive for the rational opinion of excess (Hudson, 2000)).Others who consider the ability of our skull to produce superinteligent people are worried about the need for the associated expansion of the birth pipe of the woman in order to be born (Agar, 2004, 16-17).Some claim that properties such as intelligence, memory, temperament, patience, empathy or sense of humor have a deep effect on our lives and have a moral obligation to improve their children (Savulescu, 2005, 37).However, it is unclear why and how it affects human dignity or human freedom and human healing.Obviously, there is no gene for dignity and freedom.Indeed, no human genome is representative of all people, as genetic variations are norm.Furthermore, people encouraged human evolution through environmental and social factors without considering such actions against humanity or threatening human dignity.Likewise, there are no scientific evidence to support the belief that the properties of intelligence, memory, abstract thinking, musicians, emotional sensitivity, empathy or even health are determined, responded or influenced by nuclear DNA.These arguments, therefore, based on the controversial assumption that one's genetic properties fully determine one's physical, mental and intellectual characteristics.It presupposes a simple correlation between genotypes and phenotypes, then the undoubtedly a very complex human trait is.But such a guess has no scientific basis.Simply ignores the genotypes that touched

200

Melo-Martin 的 I.

Phenotypic expression, ignoring the importance of circumstances, and ignoring the importance of one's choices in building a unique and unique life. It seems that, unless we mistakenly assume that our genomes completely determine who we will become, there is no reason to suppose that genetic manipulation alone will affect human dignity or human freedom, or that it will be able to create its creatures so intelligent, talented, sensitive, or subtle. , making them unrecognizable to humans or posthumans. Contrary to these ideas, our evidence for the feasibility of using genetic manipulation to significantly alter or influence these or similar traits is that, based on discussions of human genetic enhancement, human biology is much more complex than it appears. Consider a relatively "simple" trait, such as being healthier. We have good evidence that most diseases affecting humans are multifactorial (Weiss, 2005; Becker, 2004; Cummings, 2003; Wilkie, 2001; Risch, 2002). Unlike Mendelian diseases, the transmission of these diseases is limited by several factors, and the pattern of family inheritance does not strictly follow the Mendelian pattern. The alleles that cause these complex diseases are neither necessary nor sufficient to cause a particular disease. That is, some people may suffer from a disease without the relevant mutation, and some people may carry the mutation but not the disease in question. For many of these complex diseases, more than one gene at different loci causes the disease, and the loci may interact. Depending on their role in disease pathogenesis, these interactions may be additive, multiplicative, or have no other effect. Modifier genes can also affect mutations involved in the development of certain diseases. Interactions between disease susceptibility alleles and protective alleles are difficult to predict with accuracy. Likewise, epigenetic factors can change the pattern of gene expression without changing the DNA sequence (Jiang et al., 2004; Dennis, 2003). The expression of most human diseases also involves the interaction of multiple genetic and environmental factors. Furthermore, cases of incomplete penetrance and variable expression create further difficulties in our ability to predict the risk of disease development and thus prevent it (Wilkie, 2001; Risch, 2002). Differential penetrance of mutations is not entirely an intrinsic trait (Veneis et al., 2001). Instead, it appears to depend on various factors such as the importance of the function of the protein encoded by the gene, the functional importance of the mutation, interaction with other genes, interaction with the environment, interaction with the environment, disease, and possible substitution. The existence of alternative pathways to lost functionality. Also, some of these factors may vary from person to person. Things are not as simple as they sometimes seem. So tinkering with DNA to make people healthier doesn't seem so simple: where the possibilities exist, the changes don't seem enough to tell another post. Consider another feature often mentioned in discussions of human enhancement: longer life by delaying the aging process. Probably our first concern is to ask how long a person should live

designer

201

posthuman. Regulations in public health care and medical technology have certainly increased significantly in recent centuries (Wilmoth, 2000). None of this means we are on our way to becoming human. That seems to be the case that increases should be more important. Obviously Immortal would be a candidate. For some (Kass, 2001; Harris, 2004; Fukuyama, 2002) there is a scientific kind of human immortality. Equal guesses include assertions include assertions. As for whether immortality creates boredom, we are exhausted, how economic and environmental resources affect personal identity, whether it makes people happier, and the consequences for mortal groups living in parallel with each other, the loss of personal identity (Kass, 2001; Harris, 2004, 2000 ; Fukuyama, 2002; Glannon, 2002). However, it seems needless to say that there is no evidence that manipulating human DNA can achieve such a goal. Longer life is packed with performance. Old age is hardly desirable. Therefore, those who want to live longer also want to delay the aging process. But there is no empirical evidence to support the claim that aging is not adaptive, nor is there evidence that it is possible to measure biological age (Hayflick, 2004; Turner, 2004; Olhansky et al., 2004; Miller, 2002). It seems that the story of the change of human life and the process of aging is enough to create a will for man, but only a desolate desire (Turner, 2004, 19-21). Current biological knowledge only suggests that genes are responsible for controlling these traits. Misunderstandings of human biology are not limited to the mistaken assumption that genes control most human traits and behaviors (or at least that they control those traits that we think represent the "essence" of being human) and that human biology, environmental factors, social regulations, and institutions Other aspects are irrelevant due to its causal contribution to this property or behavior. Proponents of genetic enhancement also make the mistake of thinking that our social environment does not matter because our social environment does not matter for causal judgments about the trait. This means that these arguments are mistaken in believing that our biological traits and behaviors can be evaluated outside of the environmental, social, and political contexts in which those traits and behaviors are expressed. A genetic predisposition must be expressed as a phenotype characteristic, that is, a visible physical or behavioral characteristic of the interaction of genes and the environment, before we can assess whether these characteristics are good or bad. Many human phenotypic attributes are expressed differently in terms of their values according to their social and environmental contexts. Homosexuality, for example, can be based on the argument that it is a genetically conditioned property that can be very problematic in a society where the relationship between sexuality and reproduction is important, but it is unlikely that there is much of this in society. the concern at this link is not relevant to the environment. Let's go back to the interest in making people "healthier". Looking at recent discussions of obesity, "health" and "disease" and "disease" are, in application, far from disjointed (Kaplan, 2000, Chapter 8; Mokdad et al., 2004; Fregal et al., 2005; plus Germany, 2005; Oliver, 2005). However, it is clear that a healthy i

202

Melo-Martin 的 I.

Disease cannot be assessed by just looking at genes, or even genes in the whole organism. For example, think of an allergic reaction to a substance found in abundance only in highly industrialized societies. Even if this allergic reaction is largely determined by some genetic material, it is difficult to call it a disease or condition, indeed, it is difficult to care at all if we live in a non-industrial society. Or take the example of some Italian speakers who have neurological features of dyslexia but do not show learning difficulties, unlike English speakers who have much more difficulty learning to read due to the complexity of the language (Paulesu et al. 2001). , in order to assess a human disease, disability or condition and its impact, it seems necessary to consider the ecological and social environment in which humans grow and develop. Human biology is not independent of where we live and how we live. Most human characteristics and behaviors must be judged in a social context. Such a social background is not fixed. They have changed throughout human history, and there seems no reason to believe that we cannot change them again in pursuit of worthy moral goals such as equality or fairness. Judgments about the desirability of traits such as beauty, health, weight, strength or longevity depend on the environmental context in which they appear, and in the case of humans this includes the social and political context. If the value of these traits is not determined by the fact that they are genetic traits or behaviors, then assuming now that these traits will be valued by future generations as much as we value them, we must believe that the social and political context has won out Don't change. People There is nothing in history to justify this belief. The inability to balance the responsibility to consider the theoretical possibility that genetic enhancement could occur with the responsibility to communicate whether such a theoretical possibility would arise is not only a misunderstanding of the role in the development of human traits. The emphasis on a posthuman future betrays the prevailing belief in Western science and philosophy that the world and its components machines that function in an orderly, predictable manner (Dupré, 2001). This belief is extended to humans, who are also modeled as machines with different subunits that can be independently studied and evaluated. Our last concern is the human genome and its manipulation. However, much has been written about human genetic enhancement and posthuman creation. The debates all ignore the fact that the growing focus on genes as causation stems from our growing ability to try to manipulate DNA in the laboratory and, in some cases, in the clinic. Realization is considered desirable. Only in terms of theory-driven action do genetic problems require genetic technology solutions (Gifford, 2002; Gannett, 1997). However, it is one thing to say that almost every human trait has a number of genetic influences and a number of environmental influences. Coincidentally, this is the case for a number of reasons, such as the mechanistic worldview, the focus of research, the assumed constancy of the environmental and social factors we focus on, and in many cases genetic influence. However, these are completely different things

designer

203

It can be said that we are trying to find, and in many cases we have found, the basis of these human characteristics, which turn out to be genetic (Han, 2002). If we focus on genetic influences on traits such as intelligence, sensitivity, memory, empathy or talent, we are likely to discover them. Of course, this means that they are neither the only factors influencing the development of these traits nor the most relevant influencing factors (Chakravarti and Little, 2003).

Why is that important?

The failure to balance interest in the theoretical possibilities associated with genetic enhancement with the responsibility to assess the feasibility of these promises is problematic for a number of reasons. First, it in no way promotes an informed public conversation. We present what could only be wishful thinking as reality: from immortal beings, to intellectuals who can read books in seconds, to creatures that can communicate through brain-to-brain interaction, to entities whose moral equality is threatened. Making people aware of scientific progress is crucial in a democratic society. The public deserves to know what can and cannot be achieved with current biomedical research. Excessive confidence in the power of science prevents a correct assessment of the ethical and social implications of biomedical research. It helps no one, least of all democratic participation, to convince the public and policy makers that genetic enhancement of humans is an easy endeavor that can be used to create new post-human species. Second, discussing the dangers or benefits of new post-human species as if such an event were scientifically and technologically justified can lead to a potential loss of trust in scientists and the scientific enterprise. That trust is threatened when the public perceives that scientists are trying to achieve goals that many consider unjustified, from creating immortality to building cyborgs to directing human evolution toward so-called posthumans. This distrust, in turn, can encourage governments to implement policies that could threaten legitimate research programs. But trust in science can also be undermined by rising expectations that are unlikely to be realized. If people are led to believe that genetic research is the new cure-all, they will not take kindly to failure and dashed hopes. For example, the very negative public reaction to NASA's space exploration after the space shuttle Challenger accident may have been related to the agency's portrayal of space travel as a perfectly normal situation rather than a risky ongoing experiment (Dunar and Waring, 1999). Third, the emphasis on genetic engineering, both as a solution to human vulnerability and as a threat to human dignity, exaggerates the role of genes in the development of human traits and characteristics and neglects the role of social and environmental influences. Of course, this does not mean that genes do not matter. However, they are not the only important factors that affect people.

204

Melo-Martin 的 I.

Fourth, since many discussions about genetic improvement of people are based on an incorrect understanding of the role of gene in human biology, they help promote genetic determinism.This can, in turn, contribute to the Government policy that miscruits genetic interventions instead of preventative measures, changes in lifestyle or transformation of social structures.The wrong perception of the role of genes in human biology can also state people to consider information about their genetic composition to fate (Senifor et al., 1999; Wright et al., 2003).Therefore, while changes in lifestyle and institutional changes can improve the benefits of people, the incentive for this may be lost.Furthermore, by presenting human traits and behavior as if they were the result of our genetic exclusive games and completely independent of our social lives, we can also miss the opportunity to improve the aspects of our social, political and legal systems.Must improve.For example, the desire to improve certain characteristics is the fact that such improved properties will bring a competitive advantage in our society.With a desire to increase human length, or with a technological ability to choose a child's sex.But the fact that the value of these traits depends on our special social decorations, not the length or some kind of performance, will contribute to the benefits of any social form that we can create.For example, we create social arrangements in which, probably vicious or feminine persons can unjustifiably put into a disadvantage and use long or male persons.It is in this case that we believe that improvement of this trait or gender selection of a child would be a good thing.But if we change the institutions of society to engage in people's discrimination, then we will have little reason to require manipulation of this property.If the arguments I present here are correct here, this is the reason or hope for the post -foreign future.Furthermore, discussions about risks and benefits of using genetic improvements to create new types of descendants may not lead to informed discussions about these issues or promoting the benefits of people.

final comment

Thinking about the theoretical consequences of genetic enhancement has now become a debate about whether it is wise to continue or whether we will be lucky enough to avoid creating posthumans. There is no doubt that post-humanity - beings with abilities so far removed from today's humans that we can no longer recognize them as humans - is possible. However, there is little evidence to support this belief. One of the many problems with the debate about using genetic enhancement to create posthumans is that we don't know exactly what posthumans would look like. Clearly, any argument to defend or reject the creation of these new entities must be based on some notion of human nature. Those who believe that human nature is somehow flawed will be inclined to embrace technology that can "improve" it. However, those who see

designer

205

As a human rights foundation, whether naturally fragile or abnormally fragile, it will tend to treat the possibility of changing these basic characteristics as a danger. Either way, the current debate assumes that, unless we prevent it by regulations to prevent it, the future of people is at stake. What I am trying to show here is that it is wrong to support the fear and hope of human beings after the death of human beings. This is because that fear and hope are based on an inadequate understanding of human biology. Supporters and critics of gene enhancement have misunderstood the role of genes in human biology. moreover, they have a mistaken belief in the production of knowledge in biological science. Obviously, many debates about gene enhancement revolve around different issues. influence on "human nature" or to become thus-obtained "better people". Essencepostati. Here I pay attention only to the second aspect of this debate: what is impossible to see the result of improving the human gene is possible, what is impossible, and the social, political and ethical consequences of this debate. However, note that I did not try to deny that genetic technology can prevent and cure certain human diseases or may "enhance" certain human characteristics. The purpose of this chapter is to point out that, at least in terms of current biological knowledge, we have no reason to believe that this gene operation will create new post-human species. Surprisingly, although there is currently scientific evidence, Most of the assumptions (good or bad) of arguments about gene enhancement seem to ignore the complexity of human characteristics and behavior. Despite this evidence, the gene enhancement debate continues to see genes as the main determining factor in human characteristics, behavior or disease. These debates often ignore the relationship between genes, apparent genetic effects, the influence of the cellular environment on gene expression, the influence of environmental and social factors on human biology, as well as the desirability or incomparability of our characteristics to certain characteristics to certain characteristics to certain characteristics. Judgment. Also note that my argument is not to stop thinking about the subject of human nature, nor is it to stop thinking that the idea of improving human enhancement is a social background for reasonable and scientific goals. I am not suggesting that we stop thinking and debating. If so, we can control human self-understanding by improving genes to control human nature, if so. On the contrary, I think this reflection is very necessary, because it can help us determine what technology we want by analyzing the social types we want to establish. Encourage ethics , the legal and social impact of new biomedical research and technology, and the evaluation of the assessment of knowledge and knowledge is in accordance with everyone's interests. In such an analysis, conceptual issues, ethical principles and political and social practice must be taken into account. But what is also important to discuss about many of them is to fully reflect the power of science

206

Melo-Martin 的 I.

Research on the possibility of human genetic improvement and reasonable ideas. A careful observation of current research in human genetic and cell biology shows that many of the urgency of the future human future seems to be wrong.

References Agar, N., 2004, Liberal eugenics, Blackwell, Malden, MA. Annas, G., Andrews, L. and Isasi, R., 2002, Protecting people at risk: Formulating an international treaty banning cloning and genetic modification, Am. J.Law Med.28 (2-3): 151-178.Becker, K.G., 2004, Common Variation/Hypothetical Hypotheses of Common Complex Genetic Diseases, MD.Low.62 (2): 309-317.Bostrom, N ., 2003, Human Gene Enhancement: A Superhumanist Perspective, j. Val. Ask. 37 (4): 493-506. Chakravarti, A. and Little, P., 2003, Nature, Breeding and Human Disease, Nature 421 (6921): 412-414. Cummings, M., 2003, Human Genetics, 6th ed., Thomson Learning, Pacific Grove, CA.Dennis, C., 2003, The epic of genetics and disease: The state of change, Nature 421 (6924): 686-689.Dunar, A. and Waring, S., 1999, The Power of Research, NASA History Office, Washington Special Economic Zone, 1999.Dupré, J., 2001, The Limits of Human Nature and Science, Oxford University Press, New York.Flegal, K.M., Graubard, B.I., Williamson, D.F. , and Gail, M.H., 2005, Excess Death Associated with Underweight, Overweight, and Obesity, Journal of the American Medical Association 293 (15): 1861-1867.Fukuyama, F., 2002, Our Post-Human Future: Consequences of the Biotechnological Revolution, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York City, New York.Gannett, L., 1997, Searchable genes, deep social structures, Biol. I Phil.12 (3): 403-419.Gard, M., 2005, The obesity epidemic; science, morality and ideology, Lawrtic, New York.Gifford, F., 2002, Understanding genetic causation and its implications for ethical issues in human genetics, in: Mutating Concepts, Evolving Disciplines: Genetics, Medicine and Society, R. Ankeny and L Parker, ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dodrate, p. 109-125. Glannon, W., 2002, Identity, Prudential Care and Extended Life, Bioethics 16 (3): 266–283. Habermas, J., 2003, The Future of Human Nature, Politics, Cambridge, UK. Han, PKJ , 2002, Concepts and moral issues of genetic and non-genetic intervention prevention, in: Mutational Concepts, Chemicals: Genetics, Medicine and Society, R. Ankeny and L. Parker, editors, Kluwer Academic Publishers, PP 265-286.Harris, J ., 2000, Papers on Science and Society: The Discovery of Eternal Life, Science 288 (5463): 59. Harris, J., 2004, Immortal Ethics, Ann. New York College. science. 1019: 527-34. Hayflick, L. , 2004, "Anti-stagi is a contradiction", j. Gero. Biological. Science. Science. 59 (6): B573-578. Hudson, J., 2000, What we should nurture What we should nurture What we should cultivate humans? J. Appl. Phil. 17(2): 131-143. Hughes, J., 2004, Citizen Cyborg, Westview Publishing House, New York. Objective Genetics and Human Disease, Annu. Rev. Jeno. Gene. 5: 479- 510. Kaplan, J., 2000, Limited and Lies of Human Genetic Research, Routledge, New York. Cass. Kass, L. L. L. L. L., 2003, Beyond Therapy: Biotechnology and the Liech of Happy, Harpercollins, New York. Kass, Kass, LR, 2001, l'Chaim and its limitations: Why not live forever? The first thing is 113: 17-24. 2002, Extending Life: Scientific Prospects and Policy Obstacles, Milb. Question 80 (1): 155-174.

designer

207

Mokdad, A.H., Marks, J.S., Stroup, D.F. and Gerberding, J, L., 2004, The real death of the United States, 2000. 2000, Journal of the American Medical Association.291 (10): 1238-1245.Oliver, J.E., 2005, The politics of obesity: the real stories behind the hype Obesity in the United States, Oxford University Press, New York. Olshansky, SJ, Hayflick, L. and Perls, T., 2004, Seizure drugs: hype and reality - part 2, j. Gero.biologija.znanost.lijek.znanost.59 (7): 649-651.Parens, E., 2004, Genetic differences and human identity. It is important and difficult to talk about genetic genetics, hast.točka.Otkup.34 (1 ): S4-35.Paulesu, E. et al., 2001, Dyslexia: University of cultural diversity and biology, Science 291 (5511): 2165-2167.Risech, N., 2002, Searching for a genetic determinant of the new millennium, Nature 405 (6788): 847-856.Savulescu, J., 2005, A New Race of Human Beings: Improved Moral Obligations, repr.Biomi.on line.10(1):S36-9.Senior, V., Marteau, T. M. and Peters , T. J., 1999, Will Disease -Genetic Discovery of Disease Cause Destiny? A Qualitative Study of Parents on Familial High Cholesterol Hemorrhoids, Social Sciences.lijek.48 (12): 1857-1860. Silver, L., 1997, Reshaping Genetic Engineering Eden and How the Clone Will Change American Families, New York Avon Book Company. SOCK, G., 2002, Redesigning Humans: Our Inevitable Genetic Future, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Massachusetts. Turner, L., 2004, Biotechnology, Bioethics, and Intervention Against 22 (5): 210-221. Vineis, P., Schulte, P., and McMichael, AJ, 2001, Misunderstandings about the use of gene discovery in the crowd, Willow Leaf Knife 357 (9257): 709-712 .Weiss, K.M., 2005, The Secret Causation of Human Disease: A (Reproductive) Cell Line Interpretation, Trend Gene.21 (2): 82-88. Wilkie, A., 2001, Genetic Prediction: What's the Limit?, Stud.History. Phil.biologija.Biomi.znanost.32 (4): 619-633. Wilmoth, Jr, 2000, Population statistics of longevity: past, present and future trends, Exp Gero.35 (9-10): 1111-1129.Wright, A. J., Weinman, J. and Marteau, T. M., 2003, Effects of genetic sensibility on nicotine learning: A similar study, Toba. Continue 12 (2): 227-230.

To reduce humanity? CTA Schmidt

Summary when talking about the intersection of super -humanism, older robot technology and related fields, I want to provide some theoretical elements to answer questions like "Do we need to redesign people?"I found that others seriously consider their current currently currently considering their current current.Alternative to life -style, even if they do not intend to take measures. You would understand the extent of an alternative exploration, only see the power of human imagination -the developing dreams that allows both books and films of popular future scenes. It seems that some experts of the human brain and body want to convert live aliveThe scenes of different human forms in reality. However, it is difficult to accept the novelty because it is a change of basic human heritage, no matter how similar they are to our current state. My goal is not to provide panoramic account of technical efforts, but to improve the key concept of solving the above problems (derivativefrom informatics and related fields).

According to S. L. Esquith (2005), we should keep in mind ethics when we consider the cultural significance of certain technologies.In other words, as we act on some of these technologies or their validation, we should examine the impact of these technologies on our daily culture.Education in culture ":" We create our technology, our facilities, and then the facilities of our lives shape us on order.Our new items have shimmering, pulsating surfaces;invite to playful survey;They are dynamic, seductive and unfathomable.They encourage us to move away from reductive analysis as a model understanding.When we look at them, we do not know what we become - or remember how to see through them. "I intend to link issues about simulation and increase, both with the relationship between technology and examine it logical as a single whole that dynamically governs change.Although

C. T. A. Schmidt, University of Le Mans

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

209

210

CTA Schmidt

This topic cannot be fully encompassed here.This relationship can provide enough reasons to understand which concept of biodiversity that the media uses today should apply when they need to be applied to humans.

Pre-set in classification questions

The appearance of powerful computers enabled society to ask "other" questions that directly affect the lives of ordinary people.Includes questions about the world we live in and our perceptions about it.The emergence of highly intelligent machines on the market, and somewhat in our homes, has created a brand new playground for humanities.Due to the exponential increase in the computer's computer power, the answer to the question in the title of this chapter moves from the simple to or not to the full philosophical description of intelligent robotics, evolutionary computers and transformative aspirations of human medicine.As the anthropomorphism of completely inhuman entities (computer machines) and anthropomorphism of these entities become commonplace, many thoughts and answers to this question are now available.As a tool to calculate all things, computers seem to be in a neutral area or "tampon zone" between people and things.Some would say that computers are more than objects: we can give them emotions, give them desires and beliefs, make them speak or translate, improve their learning abilities, give them physical functions, make them play with us, make themWe help learn and use them to help children or patients express themselves, and the list continues.However, the average man will eventually say that he is not human.But can we really put computers in the same category as our daily chairs, spoons or wooden cubes?Are computers just another artifact when I can so much?Most scientists, especially those in the field of artificial life and intelligence, do not have a clear understanding of these issues, which indicates that research in these closely related areas has a problem with the definition, and the title of this chapter is only a preliminary issue.the nature of relationships.Let's go back to two primitive entities (people and items) that existed before the appearance of a computer about 60 years ago.If you contradict people and objects and express them in a linear way as we do in English (ie Person | Object), then over time there will be more interesting things to say about such a system.For example: Let's say they merged?Is there a answer to such a question?Let me briefly describe the weight of the initial problem.The growing relationship between two entities, people and technical facilities, raises further questions, especially on computers.Below are some of the numerous questions that are asked.If computers are not people, then what are they?1. When computers are said to be no people, does that mean that they are ordinary objects?If so, the observer will need to adjust his definition of what the ordinary object does, especially in the light of "living features" depicting computers in the explosive multimedia world.

Redevelopment of people?

211

and robots.2. If the computer is more than an ordinary item, what is it?3. What should I do if I can't clearly answer another question?4. Divide the continuum man-creature into three categories of a man-strict-creator can be a solution, but that means that the computer is not a matter.Is it completely reasonable to make this claim?Some machines look more human than others because of their shape and behavior.How many categories do we need?In this case, it could even be said that computers are objects and people, but this would require the existence or creation of an ontological category dominated by people that we as humans may not want to accept;This could also be interpreted as the introduction of a foreign element in our perception in the definition of man.Some might say that computers "created" modern people who were not particularly effective or creative before.If you need to accept the latter line of thinking, it may be difficult to explain why modern computers are not gods or at least superior people.In short, new phenomena observed in our information society can cause changes in our cognitive values.Therefore, it is time to equip ourselves to solve these problems.

Computers, Continuum and New

The above four questions arise from the practical concerns of the public in the new communication age, knowledge community or information age and lead us to think about why it is not possible to impose fixed restrictions on common objects or things and why it is necessary to refresh the basic categories from time to time. Therefore, if we divide the human-thing continuum into three human-computer-thing categories, this will create a working space of definitions for those studying computational concepts, and the definitions of people and objects will remain "safe" for this research. or will the very fact that we are considering a "central category" mean that we are considering a reduction in leeway in the categories of people and objects. To create computer categories, it is necessary to accept the reduction of human categories. But again, some who isolate intelligent machines into their own category take this reduction for granted, since their primary purpose is to preserve the basic properties and characteristics currently defined by humans. This does not interfere with our exploration of the middle class. If we take the example of a highly sophisticated computer that is able to see what the user is doing, sense when he is in trouble, intuitively understand the user's intention, stand like a human and be able to talk, it will help us to see that It is difficult to reduce the concept of machines and robots to mere objects, especially when projected into the future. I believe that humans will be able to create a humanoid machine that many mistake for a human being; I also firmly believe that a human being can (or could) change to the point where some would say they are no longer human. I'm talking about advanced humanoid robots and transhumanism, I don't want to argue

212

CTA Schmidt

Why should we not accept new forms of life that are comparable to or diverge from the current state of affairs. The only thing I have to do is firmly find the question, "Do we have to redesign this person?" in order to provide the most important elements needed to discuss these increasingly important matters. Furthermore, rules, maxims, or other rigid scientific devices never constitute the ultimate empathic experience for everyone. The right terminological basis, the grounding of others, helps us understand decisions, whether we accept them or not.

Two body modification techniques

There are basically two methods that can be used to artificially alter the human species. The course of evolution has changed and could diversify further, especially if humans play a role in guiding evolution. These two methods can separate the starting point using them. Robot-based approaches typically use many components that are mechanical in nature, i.e. conventional hardware, although there is a growing tendency to embrace organic elements in these constructs. The reasons for using organic materials in robotic interventions are different: they are cheaper, add functionality, make the resulting "machines" more realistic, are less harmful to the environment and provide employment for local workers. Built from one, very familiar component, the human body. The idea is to use advances in technology to modify the body or brain to achieve a desired effect. This can involve introducing various entities into the body: molecules (eg using metabolic control to "lose weight" or anti-aging drugs to stay young or live longer), electronic chips (eg in the brain to help people better understand or to remember more, or in the eye to improve vision) and bionics (for example to increase strength). Perhaps a small detail will be the difference between an implant and a graft. The former usually elevates the individual's current state to a greater ability - imagine an ordinary human with Steve Austin's bionic abilities who can lift and throw heavy objects! The latter aim to restore lost condition - for example, an elderly man who had a hip replacement. The only similarity between the two is that they both contribute to a person's current state. Let's go back to the difference between robotics and transhumanism. Although they are different, it is important to highlight their similarities: for both approaches, it is the intended effect that leads to the design of a new existence, which means that there is a certain randomness that forces us to create a new world that I do not know about Don't think that this drive is new, it's just that the available technology can surprise people. Change is a concept we are familiar with. After all, we are part of the evolutionary cycle of the world. But this short-term aspect of evolution appears to be largely behavioral, so there is limited variation in people's identities. The concept of man is a very social element and culture

Restorative redesign?

213

Elements: The relationship of liking or disliking of a member of society cannot be changed by changing the individual body of a member of society. However, continuous physical changes over time can certainly affect social relationships.

3.1

difference and the concept of people

The concept of man can certainly change, but to what extent? Perhaps it is a concept that society requires of people, who are essentially more devices than they are today. The belief that we can/should adjust our own physical existence can mean that the intangible - social, psychological, cultural and spiritual aspects of our lives become less important to us. Would such a statement be too simple or part of our new reality? Those working on advanced artificial intelligence, cognitive robotics, neuroevolution, and transhuman technology typically do not delve into the complex issues of humanity toward others in society, all of which are of paramount importance in the nonphysical realm of humans. These experts are not currently meant to work closely with such problems. However, it would be very wrong to say that these questions are not on the agenda of scientists. If they can't copy some aspects of humans, how can they hope to be better than humans? We can currently conclude that the concept of being human today means being physically larger than it was 100 years ago.

3.2

Relationship and conceptual concept

This is how the concept of man developed. Does it affect related terms? The concepts of nature and artifacts will be explored here. Our present-day recognition that the "products" of nature are tampered with is not new, but the applications of such technologies to our own physical and cognitive abilities are growing exponentially. However, let's just say that our relationship with nature has changed a little. It is important to ask why this change suddenly became necessary and what our new relationship with nature will mean for us in the future. As far as the artifact concept is concerned, the shift seems more radical. Perhaps paradoxically, the connection between people and artifacts is reinforced in the minds of society members. Take the general idea of the 'self-made man'. "Self-made man" refers to self-confidence, ambition, intellectual stamina and other qualities that belong to the purely psychological makeup of an individual, and now we can apply that expression to his physical makeup as well. If you prefer less egregious examples, you can explore the use of steroids in sports: first they were actually used, then their use was considered cheating, and now they are deadly substances.

214

CTA Schmidt

This transition occurs in a relatively short period of time, while the effects of use remain stable.Is our perception of what can be so quickly affected and what can not be considered as an artifact?

3.3

Human identity and concepts

If human transformation becomes commonplace, what does this mean for human identity in the ecosystem? In fact, human beings have the ability to change their concepts in this way, and this will have a real impact on the human environment, which proves that homo sapiens can control its "concept environment"and technology considered are only side effects of side effects.There are other technologies can be used to support the necessary development. This means that individuals have actually got the irresistible power to surpass their past and their opponents.

Shouldn't we be against greater human diversity?

In the hypothetical situation just described, the weak would undoubtedly suffer more. Is this the type of Homo sapiens we want to be? In such a world, the identities of others would be seriously threatened. The identity of "elevating" the ego would be equated with a very sudden status - deity in fact. But today we have the opportunity to apply this flawed logic to our own lives. Should biodiversity involve human redesign? As I said, the key to strengthening the argument against human modification is the need for practical ideas about how and why we should not engage in such modifications. Many have changed humans through eugenics, implants, etc., though perhaps not to the point of becoming cyborgs. (For exceptions to the rule that may not have been proven, see the chapters by Daniela Cerqui and Kevin Warwick in this volume). What distinguishes them, artificial or modified beings, from ordinary people today are the values they may share and practice; because of the hypothetical differences between (traditional) human values we can imagine primitive and inorganically modified people, people not The latter are expected to take care of their children or the elderly. Humans may have difficulty trusting the moral judgment of an unnatural neighbor or an artificial human. Practical arguments in favor of the idea that biodiversity should not involve human redesign include avoiding all forms of simulation. Such claims about simulations can be made as general advice, where negotiations on special cases are determined by a different set of criteria. An important aspect here is the urgency of the problem, as simulations change the way we think about ourselves and the world today, as suggested by Turkle quoted above.

Restorative redesign?

215

Some reasons to consider greater human diversity

(Video) SOFTWARE DESIGN DOCUMENT | WHY WOULD YOU NEED IT AT ALL

Those who support biodiversity should include the redemption of human views, they should formulate strategies to promote their arguments, because if they transform people in the above way, human beings will be an "artificial object". Those who want to promote a vision of biodiversity, one of the types involved into it, or will directly change the moral status of human beings in the world or show a strategic advantage as a robot, super-human or delay humanity. This can help people to re-examine their traditional values. When we examine the superhumanism movement, we see that the proposed values, either acceptable or no, completed under the following conditions: global security, technological progress and extensive visits (see Bostrom (2005, 13)). Any wise person agrees to these Terms and hopes to be protected, which means that the movement does not change society because some people think accordingly. The problem is that the super-humanist movement believes that it is not wrong to destroy nature, use technology to expansion of life and promotion of free will. Haven't we dealt with nature for a long time, i.e. the number of animal population control, abortion and removal of entities that are not needed? While this not only proves that greater human diversity is reasonable, it shows that human beings are always "diverse" in some way or that way. If it is used to unite people, accepting such a change will be a strategic move. Allow only members of society to improve their dignity. However, is the wording of the law that prohibits people's natural abilities from receiving such changes unjust? Obviously , in order to enable ordinary citizens to accept human biological diversity, any discussion on this topic must be at the level of these proposals. When considering the change of argument necessary for things, it is easy to say that the physical aspects of human life are quite plastic compared to the "component part" that does not manifest itself. Bostrom1 pointed out to us what tools we need to change the mentality of those who oppose these practices. He suggested that the necessary ideals that we need to find outside our resume. Therefore, we must act according to our logo in order to better understand the change of changes and better "calculated". Only when we pay attention to human rationality can we accept our own redesign. Connect this last sentence to machine-based methods. It can be said that a machine can have different types of flesh like humans, but the logo is the same - a human logo. If you are close to a smart robot

1 "The realm of posthuman values does not mean that we must abandon our current values. Posthuman values can be our current values, even though we still do not clearly understand them. Transhumanism does not require us to say that we should prefer posthuman or human, but rather in a way that favors humanity by enabling us to better realize our ideals, some of which may lie beyond the reach of beings in our present biological constitution". cf. Bostrom (2005, 8).

216

CTA Schmidt

In the human sense, the problem of classification must be thoroughly solved. Readers may find that I have not successfully overcome the actual aspect of properly adjusting the voices of people who develop human diversity. However, retreating in a way is not the goal here. This discussion reminds me of the view that Paula Rica (Paul Ric -) impossible to adjust between our limited physical and unlimited reasoning abilities: although the words of the two levels are complementary, they refuse to integrate the integration of our mistakes and mistakes are evaluated and evaluated and not make an overall decision-overall decision-overall decision. But I really want to propose elements that are vital to these issues.

References Bostrom, N., 2005, Transhumanistic Values, J. or Phil.Studies, Special Additional Publication of "Twenty-First Century" Ethics, Philosophical Literature Center.Charlottesville, Virginia, p. 3-14.Brooks, R., 2002, Robots: The Future of Flesh and Machine, Penguin Publishing House, London.Changex, J.-P., and Ricœur, P., 1998, La Nature et le règle: CE Qui Nous Fait Penser, Odile Jacob, Paris.Droit, R.-P., 2005, Dialoguer Avec Tous, et d'Arrd avec Soi, Dossier 'Disboig': Paul Ricœur, Filozof de Tous Les Dialogen ', 22 to 23 May ( Paul Ricœur in 5 died 20).Esquith, S., 2005, Technical and Democratic Political Education: Simulation and Repetition, Philosophy and Technical Society, American Philosophical Association, Central Branch Meeting, April 27-30, 2005, Chicago, Illinois. Quine, WVO, 1960, Word & Object, MIT Priss, Cambridge, Ma. Schmidt, CTA, 2006, Mechanical, Intelligent, and Our Purpose: Build a Foundation of Contradictions and Special Publications in Cognition, Exchange, and Collaboration (in Triplec (in Triplec ), Edited by G. Dodig-Crnkovic and S. Stuart, Open Online for Information Basic Journal of Science 4 (2): 195–201, http://triplec.uti.at/files/triplec4 (2) _ schmidt.PDF Schmidt, CTA, 2005, from Robots and Beliefs, Minds and Machines 15 (2) : 195-205.Schmidt, CTA, 2005, Robots, IPR and USA, Society for Philosophy and Technology, American Philosophical Association, Central Division, 2 April 2005, Chicago, Illinois Turing, A., 1950, Computing Machines and intelligence, Mind Lix (236): 433–460. Turkle, S., 1997, Seeing through the computer: Education in a simulation culture, American Prospectus 8 (31), online journal.

Design: Structure, Process and Function Methodological Perspective of Christ Miettinen

present

The system methodology includes system analysis methods on the one hand and the system engineering methods on the other.The analysis of the system develops the understanding of the system, their elements and the environment, describing their functional, structural and aspects of behavior.ENGINEERING SYSTEM translates operational user requirements into system architecture, performance and functional requirements for system elements and internal and external definitions of the interface.A common element of system analysis and system engineering is design.Design in systemic methodology is a combination of two interactive cycles, one deals with the relationship between the design of the design towards its surroundings, and the other deals with the relationship between the design of the design according to its constituent parts.For the analysis of the system, such as medical physiology, these cycles are considering the structure, function and processes in the context of the environment to provide information (what), knowledge (how) and understanding (why) the system and elements studied.develop.This chapter represents the interactive loop of the design process in the system engineering and explains the use of similar interactive loops in the analysis of the system, taking into account Harvey's analysis of the function of the human heart and the cold -war analysis of the Soviet National System of the Proturactive Defense.Insights in the analysis of the basic systems of Singer, Churchman, Ackoff and Gharajedaghi are adapted to the exhibition, which accurately depicts Harvey's pioneering scientific work and contemporary practical work of military-administrative analysts from the Cold War.

2 2.1

System definition, function, definition of the "system" goal

Design analysis in the systems approach strongly relies on modern system concepts, especially Bertalanffy's and Ackoff's definitions. K. Mittinen, ITT Industries Space Systems Division, Rochester, NY. P.E. Vermaas et al. (eds.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

217

218

K. Mitinen

Bertalanffy (1969, 55-56): "A system can be defined as a set of interconnected elements. The interrelationship means that the element p is in the relation R, so that the element p in R behaves differently than it behaves in another relation R' behavior. If there is no differences in behavior in R and R', then there is no interaction and the behavior of the elements is independent of the relations of R and R'." Ackoff (1981, 15–16; see also 1972; 1974): "A system is a set of two or more elements that satisfy the following three conditions. [1] The behavior of each element affects the behavior of the whole. ... [2] The behavior of the elements a their effects on the whole are interdependent... .The way each element behaves and affects the whole depends on the way at least one other element behaves. ... [3] However, as subgroups of elements form, each an element contributes to the overall behavior has an effect, none of which has an independent influence on it Arkov concludes from his definition that every element of a system has fundamental properties that belong to it simply because it is an element in a system, and every system has essential properties that belong to none of of its elements individually or collectively.Using these two conclusions, system analysis places the function among the essential properties of the element because just because it is part of the system and places the function.placed among the essential properties that are not part of the system. Its elements. These are key razors for checking candidate positions and candidate goals. Ackoff's and Bertalanffy's definitions are compatible, but Ackoff's definition avoids explicitly introducing the relation R to serve as an explanation for differences in the behavior of p, thus making the behavior inexplicable. This explicitly leads to the abandonment of the reductionism that characterizes systems thinking. Bertalanffy's definition is important for clarifying why systems have the kind of irreducibility implicit in Ackoff's definition: On the one hand, the relation of elements to the system and between elements to the system gives the system of elements relevant properties. On the one hand, the system is an emergent property on the other hand. In nested systems, Bertalanffy's definition helps explain what Ackoff's definition specifically describes the difference between function and purpose.

2.2

Purpose Unique features

Functions are not arbitrary properties of system elements, they must be one of those properties that the element requires by the definition of the system (interdependence of system and element behavior). This distinguishes the heartbeat from the audible pulsation of the cardiovascular system. Likewise, the extremities of the functions of the elements, the purpose of the system, belong to those properties of the whole system that are essential for the system. For example, if the role of a functional heart in the cardiovascular system is to pump blood, and circulation is the purpose of its action, then blood circulation is an emergent property of the cardiovascular system.

Design: structure, process and function

219

The system, the heart is part of the system, the heart does not pump blood, except for the cardiovascular system. The function and goals are separated by a layer layer in this machine system, but except for the random, the goal of the level is different from the following functions. Therefore, for example, drawing blood is a function of the heart , blood circulation is the purpose of the cardiovascular system and does not mean that drawing blood is the goal of the heart (that is, the purpose or the Hart valve that provides the heart Function of the room), nor does it mean that the blood cycle is the function of the human center of the human body, although these two assumptions are reliable starting point for iterative analysis in practice.

Design in systems engineering

3.1

"Design" as a verb

"Design", as a verb, is the rational or economic behavior of converting demand. In the engineering system, the demand is transformed through several stages: from user needs to conceptual design operational needs, from system needs to preliminary design design to functional requirements factor and detailed design from element functional requirements to production needs (specifications, layout, etc.). This is procedure sequence of conceptual design concepts, preliminary design and detailed design. As shown in Figure 1 below (adapted from Blanchard and Fabrycky (1981), MIL-SD499B (1994) and IEEE STD 1220 (1998) Elegant Standards Grids , Component arrangements to achieve collective ends, that is, economy of means to an end , and not reasonable functional ones (Weberg, 1992, 135).

Needs Analysis • Client Driven • Marketing Influenced • Task Oriented

Preliminary design requirements

Requirement Analysis • Analysis Task and Environment • Determine design limitations • Formulate technical requirements

architecture

Function Analysis • Determine adjustable function • Distribution of a performance request • Functional interface definition

Performance

As shown in the picture.1 Process of Designing in Systematic Engineering

Export • Detailed design • Data supported decision-making

detailed design

Synthesis • Convert function to physics • Define products and processes • Predict performance

alternative

220

K. Mitinen

Engineering design results in product and manufacturing specifications that are detailed enough to eliminate interpretation, variation, or artistic inspiration during production. Design produces detailed process procedures, detailed software algorithms, and detailed manufacturing blueprints without paying attention to known or established manufacturing techniques acceptable to engineers (Aristotelian techniques). The transformation of requirements in design is inherently risky: one cannot analytically guarantee that the requirements interpreted from one perspective to another are closed, for example, if each element meets its functional requirements in the preliminary design, it is not the case that the system meets its logical guarantees for operational requirements etc. The reason for this is that the transformation of requirements is hierarchical and interpretive: the requirements at each level are expressed in terms that correspond to that level's point of view. User requirements are expressed in terms of user performance metrics, system operational requirements are expressed at the system level, functional requirements of elements are expressed in discipline-specific functional terms (e.g. electrical, mechanical, control), schematic diagrams are expressed in manufacturing conditions and material conditions, etc. to express.

3.2

“design” as a noun

In accordance with the definition of design as intrinsically rational or economic activity, "design" as a noun is a reasoning, the basis of cognitive analysis, to transform what is inherent or implied, expressed or incarnate, or what can be attributed to the system, structural, functional and procedural relationsbetween its surroundings and its parts or elements."Design" as a noun is not the result of "design" as a verb;Arrangements and specifications are not designs, but the appearance of design, the design interface from design to production, the design abstract is sufficient to produce.The fact that designs go beyond what is defined in schedules and specifications become obvious when the designs are protected as ownership, days of buyers by suppliers in the case of contractual designs or archived for future use.Content contained in archives, or designs delivered to standard contracts, or protected as ownership of conservation designs, including effects, compromise studies and concepts of alternative systems that are estimated, but not development is finally selected for production (DAU 2000).In any case, an object called "design" contains the entire explanation for transformation of the requirements listed during the design process.Supplementing the difference between the noun "design" and the product of the activity called "design", the difference between understanding the design of something (such as the human heart) and the conclusion of the previous occurrence of the act of design;Knowing the design of something is just judging the relationship between the elements and their capabilities at consecutive hierarchical levels of nested system whether it is rational or economical.The correctness of the design is the correctness of the analysis, not the etiology.

Design: structure, process and function

221

This description of design and design is applicable to the design of both simple and complex systems. The main difference is that for the need for a large number of novelties and innovative systems, the process can be nested: What is the element of the system in the design that the above process itself is one of them is one of them. Unless systems are being designed, the element-level requirements specified in the preliminary ultra-system design may be equivalent to the operational-level requirements specification in the subsystem concept design.

Design in the analysis of the system

4.1

Analog engineering analysis

Design in system methodology is a combination of two interactive cycles, one concentrated between the relationship between the design object and the environment, and the other in the relationship between the design object and its part. In system technology, these two cycles are temporarily called design and detailed design, and in system analysis they are mentioned expansion and reduction. From the perspective of the random elements Yb, the system function function X is specified, the preliminary design of X and the expansion of YB, the function YB is the contribution of the whole x, and the detailed design of X and the reduction and reduction of YB determine YB and the reduction of Yb. The structure of its working principle. The system design of the X system in the X system of the X system above the X system consists of the relationship of the X system design and one of the system analysis. In Figure 2, the nest can be endlessly continued in two directions: x can be another larger comprehensive super -system W Element, and it can be the object of design or analysis. Therefore, the detailed design of some W and the detailed design of x, the Provisional design of Yi and the concept design on the side.

YC YB

Conceptual project of extension X from Yb

Slide

Combi

Detailed design of the reduced X of Zb2 Yb

As shown in the picture.2 Designing a Nested System Design

(ZB1

222

K. mitine

Figure 2 provides an opportunity to use Bertalanffy's definition of a system to distinguish between functions and goals. Consider the relationship between the elements Zbj found by Rzb in the reduction of Yb and the relationship between the elements Yi found by Ry in the expansion of Yb. The function of the element Zbj serves a purpose inherent in Yb, and the function Yb serves a purpose inherent in X. The question to be considered is whether the function of Yb and the inherent purpose of Yb are the same. System analysis answers no, except by chance, because the function Yb is one of the properties of Yb based on the relation Ry, not the substitution R'y, and the goal inherent in Yb is one of the properties of Yb based on the relation Rzb, not the substitution R'zb. Both the functions of Yb and the intrinsic goals of Yb are on the same level, i.e. both are in Yb, but are determined by different ratios of Ry and Rzb at adjacent levels, so they are not the same, although they may correspond to each other.

4.2 Functional differences between systemic engineering and analysis of an important difference between design implemented in systemic engineering and rationalized design in the analysis of the system is the peripheral role of functional concepts in the first and central role in the second.On the one hand, the difference stems from the relationship between the engineers and his system, but the other, from the difference in the relationship between analysts and his subjects.Engineers begin with specific customers' needs and work on translating these needs into verifiable requirements at the system level and subsystem.For engineers, a functional analysis is merely a means of installing a request that can be quantified, tested and verified.Once functional requirements are determined, they are specific to each element and compliance can be assessed independently.Analysts work from a specific system and are focused on developing information, knowledge and insights.For analysts, his goals are descriptive, relative and functional, not imperative, absolute and normative.Functional descriptions are interdependent and connected, and are jointly developed for the collections of elements.Systematic failure analysis illustrates the relevance of the difference.If all the outer enters the system in accordance with the specification, but some of the external outputs of the system are not in line with the specification, then the system is a suitable subject for a failure analysis, and an analyst, whether system designer or system analyst, is trying to analyze the malfunction and willThe malfunction is attributed to the system part or the entire system.Any component whose exits are not within the specification, but whose entries within the specification is a failure for design engineers, regardless of its functionality.Therefore the system or component specification depends on the entrance

Design: structure, process and function

223

Elements with incompatible outputs can be excluded if the inputs are incompatible. The efficiency of each element is individually evaluated according to its specifications. It is possible to forgive all elements of a failed system based on inconsistent input from other elements, for example using at least inconsistent feedback, in which case the failure can be attributed to the entire system. This focus on the requirements of the design engineer contrasts sharply with the functional analysis of the system analyst, who cannot discern in advance whether an element has inconsistent inputs or is not performing as it should in the context of its inputs. Unless a functional attribution can be attributed to the element and a reasonable claim can be made from the available capabilities and resources. A systems analyst can only progress by understanding the function of the elements. For systems analysts, the foundation for design analysis is functional descriptions, not quantitative specifications.

4.3

structure, function and process

As summarized by Gharajedaghi (1999, 112-113), the design approach to systems analysis iteratively examines structure, function and process to develop an understanding of design. Iteration is necessary because in a systematic approach process and structure are created together in the context of the environment. Research necessarily becomes iterative, as structure, function, and process are all co-created and mutually co-generated, so that new understandings of each change understandings of the other interdependently. The producer/product relationship is Singer's framework for explaining the world of complex objects without sufficient causality. According to Singer, producers are necessary but not sufficient for their product, just as acorns are necessary but not sufficient for an oak tree. Singer (1924; 1959) developed a pragmatic theory of choice, purpose, and free will using the producer/product relationship, and extended this relationship in various ways to account for replicators, co-producers, potential producers, and other biosimilar and ecological classes (Cvijet, 1942; Pennypacker, 1942). Systems analysis uses the same framework to develop objective theories of function and purpose. In the context of purpose inherent in the fundamental characteristics of inclusive systems, function is the joint product of structure and process. The main challenge for producer/product models of structure-function relationships is to explain how a particular structure can have multiple functions in the same context, as is often observed in system behavior. The answer is that one structure in one environment can produce multiple functions through multiple processes.

224

K. mitine

4.4 Design theory introduced by systems analysis from other function descriptions defines function according to a reasonable producer/product relationship between structure, function and process. Therefore, it means that design means that it has functional elements. The design paradigm of this system analysis is different from the cause, luck and personality analysis of the current functional attribution (McLaughlin, 2001). In system analysis, there is no inference about the cause of the cause of the system with obvious design, and there is no thing about whether he has benefited from his functions, and even if the object shows the design capabilities of the design capabilities, It is guaranteed that it will be guaranteed in the design implicit. The design in the system analysis is only an objective model that the researchers develop and understand, that is, it responds to "Why?" A question to supplement knowledge and information, that is, to answer the question "how?" What?" The question. System analysis differs from the classical internal purpose on the one hand, and on the other hand, the subjective attribution of subjective work differs from Cummins (1975), because it follows an objective analysis of functional characteristics: Following Singer (1924 ; 1959), the system analyzes that the functional characteristics of the system are equivalent to the observed behaviors and capabilities, and uses rationality and economy as a razor to reduce the understanding of propositions between respondents. (McLaughlin, 2001, 16-17) for Cummins, functional attribution is the relationship between the means of the goal. In traditional writing, functional the characteristics are the same as the phenomenon of public observation, so that the observer can be approached objectively. Neither the analyst nor the object of analysis (neither in the object Creator, not buyer, not user, not owner))))))))))))))) ) In terms of the purpose of the purpose, the functional concept of system analysis differs from the perspective of the cause , the personality and luck of the cause and the example of design failure. General failure - is a well-known phenomenon in the industry, especially in the product development process. However, the types of working parts that mostly failed were still designed. Their elements have functions. The role. For system analysis, the same applies to natural organs, because system analysis does not distinguish between organs and artificial products. A general failure will never work a razor's edge suitable for the relationship between organic elements and the relationship between organs elements and the relationship between organisms and organisms.

Design: Structure, process and function

225

The current theory of philosophical function, due to causes, views of personality and well-being, requires that natural organs work or work in history or have a decision or inclination to work or work. Emphasis, it is believed that types, similar pumps and cycles do not give reproductive advantages. What the current philosophy has quietly passed, it is mule Gonads, which has a reproductive function in the analysis of the system M under -disign, although it is generally wrong. It is not necessarily connected with a certain privilege level in the chain. For example, genes, organisms or species, thus -collected internal goal (survival and reproduction) launch the assignment of anchor function. In the systematic methodology, function and purpose come to any layer level (such as cell, tissue or organ interaction designer), and only look to the hierarchical structure of the local system and not further.Design-based work theory provides a method of analyzing natural sciences [1] The need for the current combination of work is interrupted. [2] Extend the theory of scientific relativity to biological levels (genes, cells, cells, cells, cells, cells, cells, cells, cells, organs, etc.) AND [3] survival and reproduction are internal goals).

5 5.1

Examples of the Analysis of William Harvey and Het Human Heart

Harvey is an Aristotle in the Paduan tradition who seeks the process of unification of the human being which is the essence of human life. In Harvey's time there was an ongoing controversy between the Aristotelians of Padua and the guests (mainly in Paris) who denied any single vital process and propagated vitality in different organs. Harvey's long-term studies of the cardiovascular system to discover the function and operation of the heart in the hope of discovering Aristotle's life processes led to the discovery of the pumping function of the heart and the fact that blood circulates (Boorstin, 1983, ch. 47; Butterfield, 1957, ch. 3; Nuland , 1988, Chapter 5). The fact that Harvey makes two discoveries at the same time is normal in systems analysis, because function and end are means and ends, and because systems analysis jointly resolves two interconnected design loops at hierarchically separate levels. Rather, considering the existing, inadequate, but internally consistent systematic analysis

226

As an initial point, such as Galen's oriented liver hematophisiology, at least two changes in existing analyzes must be made in order to achieve a new consistent analysis due to the structure, function and processing of one co -production of the other.Start with a detailed test of the muscular system of the heart and the walls of the blood vessels just outside the heart to solve systolic/diastolic disagreement.From the excellent strength and rigidity of the walls of the arteries, Harvey concluded that the heart bleed. Harvey, with a lot of violence, the way the muscles are associated with the heart, concluded that they are in the chambers that tightens the heart.job during systole.Harvey's first step was therefore to observe a new conception of heart processes from the new structure (Harvey, 1628).Harvey began the process of contraction as he tried to study the hearts and artery of the dying animals, whose heart action was delayed, and concluded that the arterial joint was currently accompanied by a violent contraction of the heart.This is contrary to the theory of "the" blood pulsation "capacity, the rhythm of the pneumonia, the spread of blood vessels to facilitate the blood flow to the heart, etc. Harvey completes its description of the systolic process, pointing out that the process is a unique command: Presentation (upper heart chamber) Always contradict before the ventricle (lower chamber), which means that the direction of blood flow in the heart always descends from the atrium, never descends from the ventricle, so it always comes out of the noventriques.The filling of the heart between the beats is only in the atrium, at the site of the atrium, the flow, there is a new heart rate.The ventricles are not closed with the rape of heartbeat;The heart muscle relaxes, but the ventricles remain empty.From this process, the observation may distract the need to restore blood to stop the relaxed ventricles from the arteries, which find heart valves after the blood launch.Galen's theory about the movement of blood back and forth, the blocking function would be counterproductive.Since Harvey's method goes beyond the rationality of necessity, Harvey can find the need for the presence and function of the cardiac valdlers in the structure of the hugs or in the general rational theory, Harvey finds from reasonable stacking with observations, source in elegance, essential functionality, interpretation.Harvey's analysis of the systolic process made another, functionally independent conclusion about each other between the heart.By applying the principle of good reason, some Harwees need something that will "awaken a dormant heart", that is, activate heartbeat.I found this Harvey Harvey, which is the time between the heartbeat of the heart of the atrium measured by passive filling.This conclusion about atrial function is truly extraordinary, since artificial pumps, mixes, etc. have no equivalent elements.Hharvey as a source of insight.

Design: Structure, process and function

227

From the initial observations of the arterial structure, Harvey identified the process, and through a detailed examination of this process the necessary elements with function were identified, which in turn resulted in a new version of the structure that carries a function in a series of iterative development.identify.As shown in the case of cardiac valdles and atrium, Harvey's systematic analysis can identify functions that are not obvious by any direct examination of the structure or analogy with other structures of the known function.The rest of Harvey's analysis included monitoring the process of contraction and one -way effects on the function of the heart, liver and lungs.The traditional interpretation of blood flowing through the heart suggests that the food that the liver transforms cannot be the source of all blood, and that the pulmonary veins do not carry any air or ether (as in pneuma) lungs, without the function of the heart, the heart is the oven, the blood drained by the aortaHe must return through the hollow vein to the heart through the hollow vein.The last observation led to the hypothesis of circulation, which Harvey failed to prove, but is firmly closed because all the explanations of the day at the beginning and end of the non -desicing flow were insufficient.Blood production and discharge must be needed.And the destruction compared to Harvey's contemporary galenian physiology, three striking features of Harvey's analysis appear: 1. Harvey never determined the function of lungs, liver or even blood itself.He rejected the inherited functional attribution but did not replace new attributes.2. Harvey constructs explanations that are necessary rather than convincing.3. Harvey ends with an unresolved problem (hypothesis of "pores" or capillaries).The first point emphasizes the feature of the system analysis: there is no endless regression of functions, nor even the final chain of functions caused from each level of hierarchy to a reference level where the ultimate purpose can be defined (such as survival or reproduction)..The coronation of the evolutionary biology at a reference level level of privileges, different genes, organisms or types is not in line with the systematic analysis made by Harvey.The second upper point emphasizes Harvey's insistence on the functional rationality of elements or Weinberg's elegance standards.This is especially evident in the Harvey's audit of Fabricius' interpretation of the venous flashes of extremities.Fabricius's descriptive explanation of their function is to regulate the distribution of blood and maintain the bloodshed blood in a propulsive way, but Harvey correctly concludes that it is necessary to block the blood flow rather than only retain it, and the structure is identified as a valve rather than a poison but a poison.That Harvey was pleased with a convincing explanation, he could have left his mentor (Fabricius) with his interpretation of Venic Valvula because he did not contradict structural and procedural requirements and functions in a co -producer/product relationship.The third upper point states that although the analysis of the system does not imply endless regression and can therefore be closed, it does not have to be closed;It is enough to establish multiple relationships that cannot be changed without contradictions.in that sense

228

K. Mitinen

System analysis is like a kind of modern theoretical physics, where a problem of unique theory remains unresolved, but trust in quantum mechanics is quite right, not just the path to the truth, but it is still high because it seems to be quantum mechanics undoubted.(Weinberg, 1992, 88).

5.2

The National Rocket Defense System of the USSR

Guided by a joint letter of seven Soviet Marshals from 1953, which is recommended to establish the national system of the police defense (NMD), Soviet Politbiro approved their first NMD program in 1954.The program is implemented in stages, allowing the transition of the Earth-Zrak missile (SAM) S-1 into an anti-Balistic missile (ABM) and the development of the Sary Shagan missile polygon, a triad target radar and a hen in the Array Radar stages.One of the achievements of the first NMD Soviet Program was the successful intercept of the SS-4 warhead of the SS-4 heading using a conventional high-explosive fighting head of the modified S-1 interceptor (marked V1000) in 1961 at a height of 25 km above Sary Shagan.This intercept included all the NMD elements, with chicken radar initially found targets at distances greater than 1000 KM and forwarded data on the goals of the trinity radar and launch sites of the interceptors (Lee, 1997).After successful testing, the operating deployment of the traffic defense system began in 1962-63.The construction of the Moscow Regional System of the Proofing Defense with its unique radar radar for dogs and silos, as well as the Soviet state system with its chicken coins and large relatives of Pecher Array Radar (LPAR), mostly Krasnoyarsk Lar.An intelligence analysis of Soviet missiles by American defense development relied on various external observations, such as working frequencies and impulses collected from Soviet radars, test observations in Sary Shagan and photos of rocket installations above the head.The analysis of these evidence is based on an approach to the analysis of the system introduced by the US Minister of Defense and former Ford Motor Company Robert McNamar.In the mid-1960s, Soviet analysts of the police defense did not understand the importance of many tests conducted in Sary Shagana or the relationship between the Radar network of home and the Moscow defense network.The US National Intelligence Agency (NIE) is not correctly identified by the Soviet Union of the NMD implementation of the implementation of these estimates, these estimates were finally questioned in the late 1960s when the United States and the Soviet Union began negotiations on the content of anti-Balist rockets (ABM) of 1972,and diplomatic demands changed the nature of proof for those who claimed that the Soviet Union set a NMD ((Lee, 1997) because the Soviet authorities denied the installation of NMD and forbidden the contract. Initial acceleration) as a technical design limit under thethe blade of economics, follows that the Soviet NMD would

Design: Structure, process and function

229

It must act in the management mode of struggle, not the defense of the point or the defense of the perimeter.With this in mind, the question of whether the Soviet Union has asked the NMD analytically narrowed to four atomic questions, which can be answered by the use of available intelligence methods.1. Are the interceptors S-5 and SA-10 I am a two-year/abm?2. Do the LPAR radari Coop and Pechor radar radars are about to monitor the goals of the steering defense system?3. Is there a central ABM command structure with a system of command, control and communication (C3)?4. Do they have/ABM nuclear head projectiles?All participants have agreed that if the answer to these questions was "yes", then the Soviet Union stretched the NMD (Lee, 1997).There are a number of things in these issues.In this case, the main feature of the system analysis is that the conclusions of the purpose (NMD) and the function (ABM) were made without any testimony of the system designer, which was available and supported the 1990s analysis.This conclusion is based solely on the external visible characteristics of the system, the abilities that NMD systems should have, and the systems of air defense systems should not, considering rational and economic relations between the system elements within the limitations of the current Soviet technology.All four basic questions deal with questions or purposes through a related analysis.For example, the difference between SAM and ABM depends on how the interceptor is integrated with the associated radar, especially the functions that the interceptor and radar joint products.Likewise, whether missiles of the Sa-5 and SA-10 interceptors wear nuclear warheads depends on the nuclear warehouse distance from the launch site of the missile.This case also illustrates another feature of the systemic analysis of artificial systems, which is that the analysis often develops functional attributes that are contrary to the statements of power, the feature described in Ackoff's work on his studies of government and UN agencies, corporations, charity organizations.Documented in many works on analysis of et al.

5.3

System analysis failed

The failure of the systems analysis described in the Soviet NMD analysis is useful. It is impossible to rationalize Sary Shagan's series of tests and you do not understand the chicken house and the dog loft radar (not really). This is because the efforts of Soviet-era analysts were wrong in the early 1960s and the correction in the early 1960s after a few years: in fact, there are two independent systems, with different interception models, different radar models and different areas responsibilities (on the one hand Moscow, and the other are the Soviet Union), What are the areas of responsibility system is a directory.

230

K. Mitinen

The same mistakes, incorrect description of the system, led to Galen's mistakes, but not all, eg Galen's wrong analysis of the heart, based on the cardiopulmonary, and not that the heart is an oven, via the pulmonary veins. The problem of correctly describing systems in systems analysis remains difficult, and inspiration remains part of the solution (Zandi, 2000 and Churchman, 1971; 1979). It is important to note that in the case of the USSR's NMD, the result of the initial failure to correctly differentiate and characterize the system was not a convincingly flawed analysis, but rather a failure of the analysis to converge. This is typical of systems analysis, that instead of confidently drawing false conclusions from false premises, confusion occurs when the basic premises are false. If Galen had insisted on necessary explanations rather than plausible ones, he would not have focused on explanations of human physiology without reaching detailed, consistent, convincing conclusions.

in conclusion

On the one hand, the methodology of the system is used as an additional method for engineering systems, and on the other hand as an additional method of system analysis. The common element of the two design is the combination of two interactive cycles, one focus on the relationship between designof the object and its environment, and the other focusing between the design facility and its element. The analysis is considered by the structure, function and processes in the background and understanding of information, knowledge and systems of research. In the system method, the procedure and structure are combinedIn order to create functions in the background of the environment. This method may distinguish structures and objectives that are not obvious from the structure or structure of the following the interactive cycle of the design process and the use of similar interaction cycles in system analysis cycles.Methods of modern analysis of the Gharajedaghi system, ACKOFFMAN are based on the singer and are promoted to respond to Harvey's current methods with modern methods of the military intelligence. Analysis of the system annulances between the assumptions between the natural system and the artificial system, separates the designFrom the designer and proposes the actual successful description of the design function in accordance with the current philosophical stop.

Design: structure, process and function

231

References Ackoff, R.L. and Emery, F.E., 1972, On Purposeful Systems, Aldine-Asorton Press, Chicago.Ackoff, R.L., 1974, Redesigning the Future, Willie Publishing House, New York.Ackoff, R.L., 1981, Creating the Business Future, Willie, New York. BERTALANFFY, L. VON, 1969, GENERAL SYSTEMS THEORY, BRAZILLER, New York. Blanchard, B. and Fabrycky, W., 1981, System Engineering and Analysis, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, Woodlv, New Jersey. Boorstin, D. J., 1983, The Discoverrs, Langdon Book House, New York. Butterfield, H., 1957, The Origins of Modern Science 1300–1800, Macmillan, New York. Cummins, R., 1975, Functional Analysis, J. or Phil.72: 741-64.Churchman, C.W., 1971, Design of Query Systems, Basic Books, New York.Churchman, CW, 1979, Systematic Methods and Their Enemies, Basic books, New York.DAU Pub, 2000, Foundation System Engineering, National Defense College Press, Washington.Flower, EF, 1942, Two Applications of Logic in Biology, in: Commemorating the Philosophical Papers of Edgar Arthur Singh, FP Clark and MC Nahm, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, p. 69 -85. Gharajedaghi, J., 1999, Systemshing Thinking, Heinemann, Boston. Harvey, W., 1628., Anatomical disqualification on the movement of the heart and blood in animals (de motu cordis), R. Willis. Year 1952. British encyclopedia .IEEE STD 1220, 1998, IEEE Standards for Application and System Control, Society of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York.Lee, WT, 1997, The ABM Treaty on Charade: A Study in Elite Illusion and Delusion, Counts for Social and Economic Studies, Washington. McLaughlin, P., 2001, "Function Explanation", Cambridge Bridge, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.MIL-STD-499B, 1994, System Engineering, Department of Defense, Washington.NULAND, SB, 1988, Physicians: A Biography of Medicine, Knopf , New York. Pennypacker, M.I., 1942, Definitions of life that must include a biological phenomenon, in: Memoir Edgar Arthur Sin Ger (Edgar Arthur Sin Ger, jr.), F.P. - the philosophical works of Clark and M.C. Nahm, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, p. 86–99. Singer, EA, 1924, Mind as Behavior, Adams Press, Collembus, OH. Singer, E.A., 1959, Experience and Thinking, editor -in -chief C.W. Churchman, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Winberg, Steven, 1992, The Last Dream of Theory, Temple of Wanda, New York. Zandi, Iraj, 2000, Science and Engineering of Systems of Systems, What is Systems Engineering?, Intn. Board of Systems. engineer. (Intose), September 19, 2000.

Co-designing social systems by designing technological artifacts - a conceptual approach Ulrich Krohs

The abstract technological artifacts are built into social systems and partly shape them.Therefore, this chapter examines whether the design of artifacts can be viewed as a contribution to social design.I explain the general concept of design design design as a mixture of complex typing entities.This analyzes different contributions to the design of social systems without supporting the expected effects of the artifacts on the system, instead of the effects that really happen.The explicit case of sociotechnical systems is first considered.The functionality of the workpiece can be accurately planned here.In society, on the other hand, it is difficult to predict the actual function of artifacts, due to the strong processes of self -organization.However, it can be shown that in this case the human design also contributes to the system design.

present

Various actors try to shape social systems, among them governments, political parties, media and economic enterprises, and at the individual level: politicians, journalists and businessmen, as well as supporters and followers of the theory of social design (SSD). Born out of such deliberate influences, societies are generally formed through inconsistent, self-organizing processes. Thus, the design of social systems, if it exists at all, is best described as a hybrid, intentional, and partially uninvolved process. The dichotomy of intentional and unintentional design is well known in other fields, as paradigms for the design of technological artifacts on the one hand and the design of biological organisms on the other. As for technical artifacts, there is a purposeful design process in which goals are pursued. In contrast, there is no intentionality in the design process that makes organisms: biological evolution is unintentional. As a result of different types of design processes, there are at least two different types of design: one is a type of intentional design, as artefact design, which can be captured in a building plan, U. Krohs, KonradLorenz Institute for Evolution & Cognition Research, Altenberg/University of Hamburg P. E. Vermaaes et al. (eds.), Philosophy and Design ©Springer 2008.

233

234

ukros

If it's about how to explain and implement a plan, this is another intentional process. Biological or natural design is another type, and it's clearly not understood as intentional. According to Darwin's new biological theory, an organism's design is largely a consequence of its DNA.1 I guess that the term "design" is properly used in these two cases, even though organizational design lacks intent.2 This means that the different cases are considered to have some important similarities. We seem to be referring to the basic meaning of "design" retained in both uses of the term. In order to exploit this fundamental importance, I will develop a universal concept of design, including intentional design and natural design. This will be completed in the second part of my chapter. The concept of universal design will be applied to social systems. It seems that the system definition is the most feasible. Therefore, in the third part of this chapter, I will discuss the design of social technology systems. These are factories and similar enterprises and other systems, which obviously have extraordinary technical components. A typical example of this system is coal mines, and the members of the Taskstoch Institute are researching the concept of the first social technology system. Such a system consists of machines, workers, administrative departments and their more or less institutionalized interaction (Trist and Bamford, 1951; Emery and Trist, 1960).Machines can perform functions that can hardly be implemented in a system, but the function itself does not constitute the system. Although many contemporary sociological methods have neglected the importance of systemic materiality, 3 the function depends to a large extent on support. point of view, I must mention the early functionalists, such as Marinovsky, Merdon and Parsons. They emphasized the role of the material component of the social system: "There is no material basis and artificial products and equipment, any organized activity. The system is impossible." (Malinowski, 1941, 68). This must be extended by referring to the contribution of the apparent genetic contribution to genetics (see Jablonka and Lamb, 2005). In biological research projects currently combined with the process of development and the process of evolution, the focus is from genetic design to the developmental process, the latter now being understood as the core of biochemical generation (Müller and Newman, 2003).2 Since biological design is understood as unintentional, the concept of design discussed here is not related to the concept of "intelligent design". "Intelligent design" has become the subject of many unfortunate political debates.3 Luhmann's functionalist description of the social system believes that the system contains only communication and interaction and does not include a formal version of the socially oriented sociological method of action (Ropohl (1999)). Similarly, in his concept of intentional of society, Searle does not think that artificial products are part of society, although he speaks of the distribution of functional (1995, 13-23). His theory of social reality includes only the following three "elements" which he calls "elements": functional distribution, collective intention and constituent ( 1995, 13, 29).4 The importance of some recent methods is considered. Callon and Latour actor-network-theory and picking strong attention to selected material freedom (eg Callon, 1986; Latour, 1988; Pickering, 1995), but their framework it is hardly suitable for finding similarities between social systems and other systems. sex.

Co-designing social systems by designing technical artifacts

235

The functionality of an artifact is said to be rooted in or otherwise related to the goals of the designer. This seems like an excessive question, because it also talks about functions related to the components of biological organisms, where there is no question of purpose. The concept of biological function is often based on the concept of design (eg Kitcher, 1993), so that the general concept of design allows defining functions that can be applied to both the intentional case of engineered artifacts and the possible unintentional case of defining instances of social function. The structure of a socio-technical system and the function of its components can come very close to what its designers intended. Therefore, a socio-technical system can be considered a designed system that does not require much deduction. The situation may be different for larger social systems, such as the societies I will discuss in Part IV. Societies are much less planned than sociotechnical systems. However, social structure is largely determined by planning factors as it is influenced by social composition, laws, institutions, etc. In addition, social structures will be influenced by social design, the design of the machines used by its members, and the socio-technical systems embedded within them. As Merton puts it: "The application of [the new] science by engineers to production... is inevitably a social decision affecting the habits and satisfactions of the men who work the machines and, on a larger scale, the economic organization and shaping of society." (1947, 567). Some of the effects of artifact design on society and some of the artifacts' functions in society may be intentional. However, in many cases there are additional, unwanted effects. If such larger social systems exist at all in the case of partially designed systems, as shown in Section IV, we are again faced with unintentional—or at least partially unintentional—design.

the overall design concept

There is no canonical conceptual framework that allows us to deal with different types of design related to different types of functional organizational entities. I strive to build a unity, not a separate vision: if we have three or four classes that go together in a similar way, a conceptual level of community can be expected. If we don't rely on that similarity, we'll miss opportunities to learn about another area. The non-breastfeeding design is found in organic systems, which is the more common case. Most biodesign concepts focus on the design process (Allen En Kekoff, 1995; Buller, 2002). References to design history are also often essential and often taken for granted (eg Lewens, 2004, 51-52).5 At first glance, the process of reference design may seem obvious: Houkes makes another observation about the most important. et al. (2002), but since this approach only works for intentional designs, it is too limited to explain partial nonrandom designs of social systems.

236

ukros

Decisions on the final product are made during the process, and there is also what the product is to be achieved.So I had to refer to the design process in the previous section.Each account has insurmountable defects associated with the identity of the design process.First, two convergent design procedures can produce the same results.There may be many different ways to achieve the same design of an engineering artefact, such as a chair or an internal combustion engine.The sequential process of many steps can be revealed, the processes can be shell or one process can bypass the other.As long as the converge process, the result will be the same, and the result is what is important in what is designed, not how it is implemented.The only difference is between design and design process, we can talk about the same result achieved in different ways.Second, we say that the design of the car can change, for example.This does not mean that the design process can be changed in retrospective;Huxley's Ministry of Truth can only laugh at a changed past, not really to change it.When it comes to changing design, we mean a new design process from the previous one.The results began, which led to different designs.So, again, the design of the entity should not be identified with the design process.Instead, it should be understood as a result of the design process (Davies, 2001, 61–62; Krohs, 2004, Chapter 4; Krohs, 2007).But what is the result?Sometimes the structure or internal organization of a complex entity is assumed to (eg Lauder, 1982), but if the design is a really internal organization of entities, we should also talk about the design of solar systems and other organized purely physical entities, since the organization of non -disposed entities is not necessaryVery different from the organization of designed entities a big difference.Imagine the streets of clouds or sandy waves in the sea as highly organized but undisputed structures, or compare the organization of the solar system with the organization (perhaps a very specific) carousel.Therefore, the design should not be identified with design design, nor should it be understood as the structure or organization of the design entity.Instead, the design seems to be something between.Considering that in engineering design design can be made even before the first prototype is built, if the design is the result of the design process that produces design entity, or more precisely, consider the type of design entity.We should refer to species, not specific units, since the project can be realized several times, using different types of types of components listed in the construction plan.6 From this account identifies the types of parts designing a complex entity and determines how parts of each type are assembled to construct the entity of the type stated in the design.This explains the concept of universal design.Design that is a typical fixer as a complex unit, including type repairs to their components and the way they are arranged, must have a connection 6

Therefore, the term "prototype" is confusing because it is usually suitable for experimental but still specific entities. In this regard, the prototype prototype tokens is not a kind.

Counteracting social systems by designing technical artifacts

237

Between a fixed and a token type. In the case of intentional design, this is a type of agreement, as it has been proven to identify the type of code code. For example, in the case of biological design, this link will be a genetic password that links the DNA structure to the amino acid sequence. Therefore, even in the non-purposeful design process, this is an evolutionary process, and we can talk about design in a fixed sense. Therefore, understanding design as a kind of complex fixation of entities will create a unique theory of design, which is suitable for intentional and unintentional, i.e. biological cases.7 Non-intensive cases are also related to social design. Therefore, I will discuss this again in the fourth part of this chapter. Let me point out that the difference between a design entity and an unwanted entity, that is, the difference in the combination of the combination of components that make up the entity. INSUD named entity, if it has a stable structure , like an atom or a solar system, exists through a process of self-assembly. Because of its physical or physical and chemical properties, all components are in place. Therefore, we can talk about components by certain attributes. In contrast, in the design subject, the component is not due to the choice of physical chemistry of their attributes during self-organization, but because their type is fixed in the design. If the type of screw is fixed, for example, M6x1x15 brass, the screw in the complex will be this type because it is selected according to the type of fastener in the construction plan. The physical characteristics of this screw are not sufficient to fix it in the proper position, and any other factors, except the type of fastening, will not prevent the installation of screws made of steel instead of brass. In most cases, even a slightly longer screw can be installed; therefore it is not the individual attributes of the parts that define it, but the design.8

3 Social technology system design and artificial product functions are applicable

Krohs (2004; 2007) describes this design concept in more detail. In many cases, not all parts of a design entity are divided by type. In addition to typically fixed components, such entities with properties may also have specific parts, such as air molecules in some gas springs, etc. Seventy-eight percent of the gas molecules will be of one type and 21 percent of the other, although there is no fixed type. In many other cases, there may be a type identity without a good reason to fix the type. Sediment can consist of particles of almost the same type, but they accumulate only because of their individual physical properties, leading to selective deposition under conditions that occur by chance. No design dictates this type. The grain size of sediments is determined by nature, not species. 8

238

Ukrasors

The same applies to social systems. Instead of considering the whole society, I will temporarily stick to the clear case of social technology. In themselves, these systems can be considered models of social selection and are part of society. A system of social technology can accurately understand the structure and function of its establishment .We can imagine that such a system is designed like this: The system designer has defined what type of machine is used and what qualifications must be available for the personnel operating the machine. In addition, the designer also prescribes which communication and decision paths are used. System components are of fixed types: fixed equipment, fixed man-machine interfaces, employees "fixed" job (job vacancy) job (job vacancy) required only by those who are qualified) and stable type of social society Institutions. In addition, the correct arrangement of all these types of consistent components and can be used for systems of installation, operation and adjustment. This means that the social technology system is a design design, as defined in the description described above. Fixing the type in the social technology system occurs at different levels. At the highest level, the type of system is fixed is as a whole, like a type of coal mine or power plant. It includes a type of component of a fixed system and its arrangement. Some of these components are machines, at least in terms of them, also includes another type of fixation. They are complicated entities that retain a type, which can be completely independent of their possible applications in specific social technology systems.9 The current question is whether machine design and how to help the design of social technology systems. They are part of the following: Does the machine containment type represent part of the social technology system? If so, are they containment components? First of all, the design of the social technology system usually does not define the machine component type. It will fix only the machine type, and the entities of these designs will have a component of a fixed type. Regarding the first question, we must say that the types of fixed subtypes of the system of social technology, that is, the components of the components, obviously cannot exist only in machines, and not in the system of social technology. Technological system. The machine belongs. Therefore it is part machine as a part of the social technology system itself, part of the system. But are these component types a reserved component of the social technology system? The design of the social technology system defines only the type of machine, not the type of its component, but by fixing this type we hid the design of the machine. If the design of its If the type of component is not defined, the machine will not exist. Therefore, it can be said that the design of the social technology system implies the type of component of the fixed system.

9 I will dwell on the case of artifacts, since I am interested in the contribution of intentional design to the design of social systems. Furthermore, biological type fixations can be found for humans working in the system, as long as they are biological organisms.

Design a social system through technology design

239

Components, and the design of machinery is part of the design of sociotechnical systems.This means that the evidence of type is transitive in this case: type -fixed parts of the type -fixed system parts can also be considered typically fixed compared to the system as a whole.Typical fixed components of socio-technical systems and their components not only assume that they exist in the system, they also have to meet certain functions in the system.Only functionality can show the success of the design, so it should be evaluated in design evaluation.Likewise, the term function, as well as design, is very controversial (see Allen et al., 1998; Buller, 1999).As I pointed out, it can have something to do with design concepts.Therefore, the concept of universal design can be easily defined by the concept of function.We can easily combine Cummins' description of the causal role of functions (Cummins, 1975) with the design concept and end with the following explanation: the function is a typical fixed component of the system capacity, ie design design (Krohs 2004; 2007)."Contribution" should be understood in terms of preferences, as proposed by Cummins (1975).10 functions, therefore, is the role that some part is designed, not the question of whether it is thoughtful to play that role.Similar to the design concept, this functional concept also applies to the functions of components intentionally designed entities and to the functions of components of naturally designed entities.The only requirement is the design property in terms of type stability.We used to see that the fixation of the type is transitive in a proven case.A type -fixed part of the technical artefact is also a type -fixed part of the sociotechnical system to which the artifact belongs to the type -fixed part.Functions can also be forwarded, but it does not seem to be universally applicable.Malinowski gives an example of how the components of the social system components affect social systems by referring to biological design components: "Processes such as breathing, excretion, digestion and gland without channel [ie endocrine gland] more or less affect culture. Less direct" (less direct "(Malinowski, 1941, 68). Although we see the influence of the higher system components on the built -in systems, we must be careful and observe this as a transitivity of function: Human organs for excretion do not function as social organs for excretion, nor adrenaline of the primary social reaction to flight, instead, functional sub -components will contribute to other higher system abilities, such as the promotion of agricultural production through fertilizer or specific social dynamics. Similar considerations can be applied to the function of components of technological artifacts in society.

This definition of function overcomes the two basic defects of the Conomin concept: it is not suitable for pure physical entities, and it allows a failure of definition because the referential design introduces an instance of specification. It is inconsistent with the function of functional etiology (like Millikan (1984)) that the range of definition must be mind when referring to design (Krohs, 2005). In addition, this concept allows the definition of a function established in history to refer to a chosen function, almost like Migen's Mi Ligen method. Details will be given elsewhere (Krohs, 2007).

240

U KROHS

It is more likely than in the case of organisms that many subcomponent functions are indeed transitory, but other types of fixed subcomponents may assume new functions in sociotechnical systems. The system cannot have such a function, but only within the system. These are the contributions of the components to the capabilities of the design whole. For example, employees perform different professional duties, machines have different functions in the production process. These final systemic functions of machines in socio-technical systems are functions of the artifact as a whole. These functions appear only at the system level embedded in the artifact. Although it is common to qualify functions in relation to embedded systems, some scholars also prefer to allow the attribution of functions to artifacts without context. For example, Achinstein expressly denies that attributing a function to an artifact refers to the system to which the artifact belongs: "To understand the claim that the function of a mousetrap is to catch mice, we need not identify the system in which . . . that function is (Achinstein, 1970, 350). I strongly disagree with him and follow Preston et al. Preston pointed out that one type of artifact function is directly based on their systemic action, while the other This function, the intrinsic function of Milicaney, at least begins as a system function (Preston, 2000, 32 ).Therefore, the Akinstein Mousetrap can only be used in systems where someone can use it (whether successfully or not) to catch mice. If the device is not considered part of such a system, it has no such function. One can try to work around this result by referring to intended function; but if the device will only do what the designer intended for function A, and is poorly designed not to do it, then we can say that it does not have that function, but only the expected function of capturing the mouse. So a purely expected function is not a function, just as a counterfeit coin is not money. 12 About the expected function A statement is a statement of the designer's goals. It may or may not be successful in implementing the intended function as part of the designed system. The intended function of the machine may even be to perform work without consuming energy, although no one can implement this functionality. Designers can only record component types and their interrelationships, but not their functions. These functions appear in the operating system. The functionality of an artifact as a whole depends on its role and how it is embedded in How it is used in the system (for aspects of use, see Houkes et al., 2002). So, just as the functionality of the components of the artifact is defined in terms of the capability of the artifact as a system, the functionality of the artifact as a whole refers to the capability of the embedded system.11

Solving this problem requires further elaboration, which is beyond the scope of this chapter. 12 Within the conceptual framework applied here, the notion of intended function can be interpreted as follows: The expected function of a type with type-fixed components A complex design entity is the role that the designer assumes in the fixed type. Note that the designer's assumptions do not imply that the component is actually capable of fulfilling its role.

Design a social system through technology design

241

Elements of social design

When we consider well-defined socio-technical systems, we are likely to be dealing with almost completely designed entities. This changes when the scope is extended to larger sociological entities such as society as a whole. Again, artifacts are important components of these systems; but we need to determine to what extent the design of technical products is co-designed by society. The concept of universal design distinguishes two ways in which design determines complex systems: component types are fixed; and the construction or composition of the system is determined. Of course, in the case we are considering, only the first method of determining design is valid: the machine is a type-preserving part of the society in which it functions because (i) the design of the machine preserves the type and (ii) it is conceived. As part of society according to any method that allows at least some parts of the social system to have materiality. In this way, if the design of manufactured artifacts can be defined at all, then the design of manufactured artifacts can contribute to the design of society, which is not yet defined. However, another way in which design specifies a complex whole has to do with its composition and the interrelationships of its parts. This assembly determination is often complemented by conscious design, which is specified in the architectural plan. In contrast, in societies, meetings are mostly governed by self-organizing processes. Although this suggests that the assembly is not determined by intentional design, it may still be based on unintentional design. Therefore, we need a standard to assess whether the system assembly process is determined by design. Such a criterion can be found in the set of system roles realized by system components: a component can be considered a design result only if its actual role is derived from the design and thus calculated. as a function. In this sense, we can say very clearly that many technological artifacts play roles in society that were never prescribed by any design. Let me look at the new Airbus A380 as an example of the impact of artefact design on social design. It is designed to transport a large number of people on a limited number of fixed routes. Availability of airport facilities, airline policy and potential passenger preferences may or may not lead to this intended function; but at least the design of the A380 contributes to the design of society. Not only does it open up new opportunities for public transportation, but it creates jobs, encourages activity to build larger runways, requires interventions in nature to build those runways, and raises social resistance to such interventions, against environmental concerns and human and technological errors. which may result from taking long-term risks related to environmental issues and the impact of such public transport on everyday life. But the A380's role in society is unclear, as it will be realized after some units are delivered and cannot be fully planned. Designing such an artifact might participate in the design of society, but it does not necessarily produce the desired outcome. There are no artifact rolls, only directly designable material components. The same applies to institutional design. well actually

242

ukros

Roles should not be understood as artifact functions, which would require them to be determined by design. However, no single instance alone speaks of the actual appearance of the scrolls; there are significant interactions in society that are not designed. However, Social Systems Design (SSD) seeks to precisely define social systems at the level of such interactions and interrelationships among components, and to institutionalize all acceptable interactions within the system. This seems to work only in small systems of cooperating individuals, such as educational systems in benevolent settings, where, moreover, the number of artifacts involved is very limited and the interactions are almost entirely social (eg, Banathy, 1998). For systems with a strong material base, it also seems to apply when the technical component of the organization can be ignored for other reasons, so that isolated "soft systems" can be solved (eg Checkland, 1981); it seems that SSD is not suitable for large systems, such as society as a whole (Laszlo, 2001). One of the reasons is the unpredictability of material freedom of choice. Pickering argued that "[no one] knew in advance what the machines of the future would look like and what they would do" (Pickering, 1995, p. 15). Pickering's statement must be interpreted broadly, meaning that there is little or no way of knowing what today's machines will do in the future. We can say that the less strictly defined by the project is the set of fixed entities of the component types, the less complete the design. Therefore, social systems, even when the types of their components are fixed, are less completely designed the more they are shaped by self-organizing processes, as long as these processes are not yet taken into account in the design. In the context of society, "design" clearly does not refer to one coherent plan that strictly defines the system, but to a heterogeneous collection of design elements that can be isolated. There are type-fixed components, including artifacts such as cars, computers, and buildings. These artifacts play a role in society. People are also components, acting as family members, professionals and volunteers. As is the case with socio-technical systems, we must see many, but not all, places that people occupy as places where the individual is an integral part of society. The places themselves determine to some extent the type of inhabitants, here their occupations. This type fixation helps shape society. Authorities and executive authorities are defined by their constitutions, and interactions with them through more or less strictly official channels. This list can be extended almost indefinitely, but no matter how many components we decide to add to this list, we will never end up displaying a design that defines society to a degree comparable to technological artifacts or society determination - due to its specially designed technical system. There are at least four main differences: 1. The design of societies is always incomplete. Not all components of a social system are of a fixed type, perhaps only a small part. People do not only perform fixed types of work (they are engaged in

Design a social system through technology design

243

Many different self-imposed tasks) nor institutionalize all actions (and they will be based on free and well-considered, albeit limited, choices). Nothing else is compatible with human freedom. 2. The mix of typing that can be found in society will be a large patchwork: the blueprints of the relevant components of society may come from completely different sources and may be implemented independently rather than in a coordinated manner. 3. These designs can be subject to constant changes, which in turn can be inconsistent: in newly designed socio-technical systems, social components are formed that can use machines for functions that were never designed. In the case of fixed positions, the people occupying these positions can change the type of fixation and thus mediate deviations from their earlier design of society. 4. Societies are extremely self-organizing, not composed according to plans, and can depend heavily on unexpected preconditions. Because of this, the actual role of a technical artifact by type often deviates from its function, according to the function of each system design to which it belongs.

in conclusion

I introduced an unconscious design concept defined in terms of type fixation.The designed entity is a complex entity that is fixed with the type of component.This provides a unique view of the design of technological artifacts, biological organisms, sociotechnical systems and parts of society (and the ecosystems I leave out here).Technological artifacts can be used as a type of fixed component of designed socio-technical systems.Therefore, the design of engineering artifacts, which serve as fixing in terms of their components, helps to design these systems.But technological artifacts are also part of the social systems of higher levels in society.They can directly belong to society as its immediate integral parts, or indirectly as an integral parts of the socio-technical system.The design of artifacts thus affects the design of society - the typical fixation of components.However, societies are mostly self -organized systems.In the ad hoc system, design components only determine the system to a small extent.Instead, it opens up possible outcomes of self -organization process.Thus, the type -fixed component of society can contribute to its design, but the design of society will only be a piece, an incomplete design.13

Of course, the fragmented design of society does not mean that "fragmented social engineering" is the ideal method. It is limited to a temporary response to new problems. These problems are considered more or less isolated (Poper, 1971). Social engineering and reform.

244

Ukrasors

Regarding the concept of function, the incompleteness of any design of social design is confirmed. The concept of function is related to the concept of design: the function of a component of the overall design is the role that the component assumes in the system by design - not necessarily the intention. The listed functions are the goals of the designer, which are not necessarily achieved by the actual functionality of the component. Therefore, the design of cultural relics is only a common design of society. Their de facto functions do not necessarily coincide with the functions of functions, and many of the roles that technological artifacts can play are not fully determined by the design of social systems and therefore cannot be classified as functions. Societies are always segregated by design, allowing gradual change and hindering non-random processes of self-organization. It seems impossible to design all the relationships between system components. In many cases, the failure of SSDs is not only - not even primarily - due to the complexity of the social system, but is the result of the gradual features of each social design, in addition to the material components of the social system. system, trying to design the functionality directly, without focusing on the carrier. 14

Reference Achinstein, P. 1970., A Functional Statement, Phil. Science. 44: 341-367. Allen, C. and Bekoff, M., 1995, "Biological Function, Adaptation, and Natural Design", Phil. Science. 62: 609-622 .Allen, C., Bekoff, M. and Lauder, G., Edit, 1998, "Natural Purpose: Biological Function and Design Analysis", MIT Press, Mon.Banathy, BH, 1998, Evolved by Design Leadership: A Systems Perspective, System. Res.20: 161–172. Buller, D. J., 2002. Function and design revisited, in: New Papers in Function: Psychology and Biology Philosophy, A. Ariew, R. Cummins and M. Perlman, editors, Oxford University Press , Oxford, pp.222–243.Buller, D.J., Edit, 1999, function, selection, and design.State University of New York.Callon, M., 1986. Some elements of translating sociology: the domestication of the Sint-Jakobs shell fisher and St Briec Bay, Locations: Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? Sociological Review 32, J.196–233.Checkland, P., 1981, Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, New York Wiley; cited "New Version", Chiced, 1999.Cummins, R.1975, The Analysis of Function, J.Phil.72: 741-765.Davies, PS, 2001, Standardized or Natural: The Essence of Naturalism and Function, MIT Press, Cambridge, Monday.Emery, Fe and Trist, El, 1960, The System of Social Technology, reprinted in: System Thinking: Selected Readings, Fe Emery Editor, Penguin, Harmondsworth, Harmondsworth, 1969, pp.281–296.Houkes, W., Vermaas, P.E., Dorst, K. And De Vries, M. J., 2002, Design and use as plan: A theory of action Description, des.Korak.23: 303-320. Jablonka, E. And Lamb, MJ, 2005, "Evolution in four dimensions", MIT Press, Cambridge, Monday.Kitcher, P.1993., Function and Design, Midw.Korak.Phil.18: 379-397.

I would like to thank the discussants at the 2005 SPT meeting and Werner Callebaut for helpful comments on the manuscript.

Co-designing social systems by designing technical artifacts

245

Krohs, U., 2004, Eine Theoriebiologier Theorien, Springer, Berlin.krhs, U., 2005, The design of biology, in: Philosophie der Biology: Eine Einführung, U. Kr Ohs and G. Toepfer, Eds. Main, page.52–69. Krohs, U., 2007, works as it is based on the concept of general design (Synthesis Forthy). Laszlo, A., 2001, Syst.res.18: 307–321. Latour, B., 1988, The Pasteurization of France, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma. Lauder, G. V., 1982, Historical Biology and The Problem of Design, J. Th Eor.biol.97: 57–67.lewens, t., 2004, Organisms and Artifacts: Design in Nature and Elsewhere, MIT Press, Cambridge, Ma . Malinowski, 1941, The Scientific Theory of Culture, in: Theory of Culture and Other Essays, B. Malinowski, and H Foreword of Cairns, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, New York, 1960, pp pp pp pp.1–144. Merton, R. K., 1947, The Machine, the Worker and the Engineer, Science 105; reprinted in: Social Theory and Social Structure, R. K. Merton, Revised and Expanded Version, 1957, 1957, 1957, 1957, 1957, 1957 , 1957, The Free Press, Glencoe, p. 562 -573. Millikan, R. G., 1984, Language, thought and other biological categories: New foundations for RealISMM, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, G. B. B. and Newm AN, s. A., Eds., Eds., Eds., Eds. 2003, Organizational Form: Beyond Gene's Origins, PhD in Evolutionary Biology, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts.Pickering, A., 1995, The Mangle of Practice: Time, Agency, and Science, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Popper, K., 1971, The Open Society and Its Enemy, Volume Two, Princeton University, Princeton, Princeton. Preston, B., 2000, The Function of Things: A Philosophical Perspective on Material Culture, in: Material, Material and Modern Culture, P. M. Graves-

Behind the inevitable emphasis on the role of intent and ethical responsibility in the Kathryn A. Neeley and Heinz C. Luegenbiehl

Design is "the first signal of human intent". - William McDonough (1993)

To summarize how people perceive their world and their behavior in relation to it is greatly determined by the way they speak.In this article, the authors claim that this has particularly important implications on the work of the engineer and their perception of moral responsibility.The discursive framework that regulates the behavior of engineers aimed at technological development seeks to lead to the perception of technological inevitability, while the discursive frame focused on the terminology of engineering design increases the consciousness of the choice and thus personal responsibility.The awareness of responsibility, therefore, the results of the design -focused discussions are not limited to the closely defined safety and production considerations, but also include holistic considerations such as aesthetic and environmental factors, and consideration of the social influence of design elections.The authors suggest that increased attention to the discussions about design, whether in professional or public environments, could improve a broader sense of ethical responsibility among engineers.

present

It is often relatively easy for engineers to identify ethical issues in personal relationships and when making personal decisions. However, it is often more difficult for them to take responsibility for, or even acknowledge, the ethical issues associated with technology-based systems and large-scale technologies developed by groups and organizations. These forms of large-scale technological development, despite their enormous impact on individuals, are often considered beyond the control of individuals. Part of the reason for this is that discourses related to technological development are often dominated by ideas of inevitability and the assumption that the paths of technological development are difficult, if not impossible, to control. Design discourse is relevant to the individual, focusing on the vocabulary of intention; appears to be based on our assumptions K. A. Neeley, University of Virginia H. C. Luegenbiehl, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

247

248

KA Neeley i HC Luegenbiehl

Reasonable control over the forms we design and the consequences of their use; conceptualizes design as a process imbued with ethical considerations. In this chapter, we argue that the concepts of openness and choice reflected in the design discourse are more conducive to moral awareness, deliberation and responsibility than the concepts of inevitability in the discourse of technological development. It can be seen that if the discourse of technological development in the vocabulary of engineers can be transformed into a design-oriented discourse, their ability to think ethically will be enhanced. Our analysis aims to suggest ways to transcend the discourse of inevitability and propose a framework that emphasizes the ideal of individual moral responsibility in large-scale team engineering design. Specifically, we argue that replacing the discourse of inevitability requires: 1. Recognizing that the discourse of inevitability derives its tenacity from many sources, including the way it resonates with lived experience and its pervasiveness in mass media, simplicity, and familiarity. 2. Develop a compelling design discourse, which in turn is grounded in a solid engineering and technical philosophy. 3. Show that as human beings we can choose the forms of discourse in which we engage and that these choices have significant social consequences. Next, we use a discourse analysis approach, in which we look closely at how the discourse of technological inevitability functions as a means of understanding the sources of its power and how it can be suppressed.

Main characteristics of unavoidable words

Discourse about the inevitability of technological development pervades popular culture and public technical discourse, and are especially strong in discussions on information and communication technology.This is clearly reflected in the titles of the cover of Popular Science, PC Magazine, PC World and Wired, which are whispered by exclamations: "The problem of superpowers: impossible to become a reality!"(Wired, August 2003), imperatives, "Departure Wireless: Faster and easier than ever" (PC Magazine, May 18, 2004), promises, "immortality: 7 simple steps to engineering immortality" (Popular Science, 18.January 2005), and a competitive advantage or a licensing product, "PC Secrets! 15 Simple Ways to make your Systems to the sea" (PC World, March 2006) and "Build Your Perfect PC: Faster Than Dell, Cooler Than Apple,Cheaper Than Sony "(PC Magazine, March 7, 2006. Crocker and Weinstein (1994) in his argument of inevitability is core summarized in his book Data Garbage: A theory of the Virtual Classroom (1994):" Adapt or have been fits. "

Transcendence

249

Both the covers and content of these publications make it clear that the discourse of inevitability is primarily a marketing trick, a way to sell "new and future", promises and visions of the future.In terms of selecting the topic in these discussions, the choice that must be made is usually between different versions of a particular technology, such as digital cameras, flat -screen TVs, computers or software packages, and not certain technologies of certain technologies.Techniques should be used at all.Discourse of inevitability is associated with different metaphors in which technologies are being understood as natural forces or autonomous drugs that set demands and products of "strong and inevitable changes" (Sasseville, 2004, N.P.).This means that technology is the main or only initiator of social evolution, and control over design and results is difficult or impossible.Therefore, the current popular and technical discourse that uses technological development dictionary reflects the view that has been analyzed and criticized by many technology commentators such as Jacques Ellul (1964), Martin Heidegger (1977), Martin Heidegger (1977), Langdon Winner (197777) (1977)(1977)), Arnold Pacey (1983), Thomas Hughes (1987) and Rosalind Williams (2002).Winner started writing his discussion: "A symptom of a deep stress that affects the modern mind is the dominance of autonomous technological thinking - the conviction that the technology has somehow made control and that its own lessons follow, regardless of human leadership. This idea (at least on the surface) seemingly seemingly seeminglyStrange, this fact did not prevent the central obsession from becoming a nineteenth and twentieth century literature. "(Winner, 1977, 13), considering the core of the demanding of moral decisions, it is not really a surprise that the popular discourse discourages moral reflection and personal ethical responsibility, promoting what is considered meaningless to the individual.the process of technological development.Discourse challenge of inevitability was one of the most important projects in the OPI community, a venture considered by most scientific analysts, and was achieved with great success and great success.After rejecting the inevitability within our own professional communities, it is easy to overlook until the extent to which the notion of inevitability still occurs in popular and technical discourse.

3 Understand the stability of the inevitable words and the stability of the word, the stability of the word of the word comes from many sources, including its simplicity and familiarity, and the way it echoes life experience. In the more complex narrative of professional historians, it can better capture the subtle and intricate places of the process of shaping society and the process of social shaping each other. The exhibition of inevitability seems to provide a "simple and direct interpretation," p. 80).). There are also countless assumptions, myths and tendencies that lead to inevitability.

250

KA Neeley i HC Luegenbiehl

Perhaps more importantly and eloquently, the discourse of inevitability resonates with lived experience. This point has been made by several technical analysts, including Arnold Pacey (1983) and Eric Schlosser (2002), but Rosalind Williams in Restructuring: A It is perhaps most clearly stated in A Historian Confronting Technological Change (2002). A historian of technology, Williams analyzed her experience as a university administrator participating in a "reengineering project" designed to improve the management of her institution's existing resources. Building on Thomas Hughes' concept of technological dynamics, Williams concludes: "It is easy to overthrow the logic of technological determinism, but one must obey 'technology', 'software' or 'computers not. Refute them with logic'" (2002, 117). According to Williams, the process begins with what she calls a "technological shift," the tendency to address aspects of a problem that are best suited for a technological solution and that can quickly lead to visible results. Once this happens, "the rules that govern technology begin to rule everything else. Technological shift becomes a technological dynamic that begins to feel [emphasis added] very much like technological determinism" (2002, p. 116). What begins with a choice is experienced as an inevitability. This resonance with lived experience is one of the many reasons why the stories of historians and philosophers of technology, as well as other professional analysts, cannot compete with or dominate simpler stories of inevitability. We argue that the community of professional analysts of the interaction of technology and society is unlikely to distort the discourse of inevitability unless we can relate to the wider societal discourse on technology. We argue that discourses of design and intention have the potential to make this connection and more fully illuminate the ethical dimensions of technological system development.

4 In contrast to the language of language design and technology development, because most of the lack of moral responsibility in our common language in technology is worth distinguishing between the tendency of the discourse of design and technology development. Table 1 briefly describes the terms associated with these views. Here we only have space to highlight some of the of these terms to compare and how they affect the sense of subjective choices. For example, since the term "design" is commonly used in the field of engineering, it is focused on certain things, whether it is a single project or a larger project, but it still has specific results. The term "technical development" usually refers to a general trend. Therefore, each specific development becomes part of a larger process. Therefore, the concept of design is easier to think from an original perspective, and the concept of technological development conveys the problem of how to adapt to a larger whole. Therefore, the root cause technological development of ideas about progress, that is, a problem built on the previous thing, which will be better than or better or better or better

Transcendence

251

Table 1. Discourse tendencies Design Technological development Concrete innovation Originality Change Imagination Aesthetic considerations Personal merit Inventor People Repetition

Overall Trend Process Progress Productivity Team Anonymity Company Technology Linear

Improve what already exists. This then limits the possible options for engineers. However, for design, if originality is the norm, even though the concept of "Better" can still be invoked, the main focus is to break with something earlier. Aesthetic issues also play different roles in the two discourses. The productive function is at the center of technological development; that is, ideas for improvement are based on the idea of whether a new device will perform a particular task more efficiently, a criterion often derived from the nature of the technology. This further limits the space for proper development. However, if the design criterion is originality, the entire device becomes a concern, not just one aspect or function. In turn, this greatly increased the number of observed choices and showed that designers brought other elements into the comparison, such as ethical considerations. Development is part of the chain, design means a break in the chain. In modern engineering, design and technical development are often team-oriented, but design is still connected with the idea of individuality, so the designer has the feeling that she is making her mark somewhere. For example, news magazines like Time regularly publish lists of creative "design" events that highlight specific people for their creativity and ingenuity, while technology trends are described in terms of industry or business plans. So what is missing in the development of technology is attention to people. Instead, the focus is on the technology, how it fulfills its assigned function, and therefore ethical issues beyond functional ones are missing. Therefore, the concept of responsibility that forms the core of ethics is limited to technology. For example, in the field of sustainability or safe use. The broader issue of alignment with societal priorities is neglected and difficult to discuss once the technology is developed. But the question of how well a device works clearly raises a host of ethical issues associated with the introduction of new technology, for example, in terms of the materials used in its manufacture and their effects on humans. territory. A further difference between the two discourses is that the technology design process is often considered to be iterative, while technology development is linear. Judging by the feedback, the design offers the possibility of revision

252

KA Neeley i HC Luegenbiehl

And re-think, expanding the range of perceived options.Although modifications are also possible from the point of view of technological development, they are intended to improve adaptation or other progressive standards.Thus, further research actually narrow the range of perceptual choices to 'best fit', instead of expanding it.An example of contrast between these two discourses can be found in the Public image of the Apple I-floor opposite the Dell computer.The I-floor is placed on the public as a technology that combines the form and function, so that his aesthetic considerations were attracted to the public as much as his function.Steve Jobs is praised as a creative genius and credited to stimulating the public's desire for a product that is sold based on its originality, whether or not in the established model of music listening.Each new version of the I-floor is considered to be another revolutionary "Must Have" device in popular literature, even if it just expanded the functionality of the previous version or further reduce the device size.In contrast, the Dell Public Views as a mere goods.Progress is not defined here in terms of originality, but in terms of its contrast.Dell is proud of that relies on components that have made another and makes the production process as efficient as possible.The attractiveness of the product is that each new version of the computer has multiple computer power and costs less.Michael Dell was praised as a genius, but his genius was in the development of innovative production processes, not in the original design.Another way of viewing the same contrast is in terms of American "innovation" in relation to Japanese improvements that were popular in the late 20th century.Masaaki IMAI (1986) described this difference: "Innovation is dramatic, something that really attracts attention. The results are often prosperous and subtle, and the results are rarely visible. Although improvement is a constant process, but innovation isusually a one-time phenomenon "(1986, 23). Given the market success of Japan in the 1970s and 80s, American companies were invited to mimic the Japanese model, which of course meant an upgrade to the past in incremental way, not originalityProducts. In search of Japan's success, design considers became subordinate to producing innovation, known as foreign technology borrows, which have then produced the Japanese processes such as delivery partsExactly on time and team production. We argue that the change in the emphasis is associated with the design from the design to develop technology the possibility of ignoring ethical considerations.

The ethical meaning of the words we use

In their research on "Ethical Considerations in Engineering Design" (2001), Van Gorp and Van de Poel highlighted two fundamental characteristics of the design process recognized by engineers.

Transcendence

253

and economic considerations, and the often ill-defined nature of the design problem, such that there is no optimal solution to the design problem. Both of these considerations provide distinct opportunities for ethical reflection, even if the engineer's moral intervention is ultimately deemed unjustified. Questions that arise during the trade-off process may include: "For example, how should the relative importance of safety versus cost be decided? Who should make that decision? Project engineer, manager or customer [sic], profiled users, who might be involved, the public? And how can that decision be made in an ethically acceptable way?" (2001, 19). Regarding the ambiguous nature of technical design, Van Gorp and Van de Poel tentatively conclude based on their research: , which seems to immediately prompt reflection and discussion of requirements, as is often the case. Ethical aspects may, but need not, play a role in these debates" (2001, p. 21). Given the need for compromise and the ambiguous nature of technical issues—especially when considering the combination of social, ethical, and technical time—there is no the optimal solution to a technical problem. When this is recognized, the question arises of choice, but also of a sense of responsibility for one's own actions. In terms of traditional engineering ethics, this means that the public and its safety can be prioritized in the design, the natural and human environment, and the effects of different types of use natural resources. The ethics of technology understood in this way can be expanded to include issues beyond traditional issues, such as confidentiality and conflicts of interest. Design as a process imbued with ethical considerations, the social impact of technology can be viewed from a broader perspective than the technology-driven emphasis on production, progress and efficiency.The difference in emphasis between the two ways in which we discuss the work of engineers can lead to overcoming the limitations of the moral reflection of technology creators. barriers. How can we use our understanding of sociotechnical systems to identify productive ways to talk about this process and raise awareness of ethical choices? First, we know that we have to be very careful about the sociotechnical systems we build. As Hughes (1987) once a choice has been made and a system established, we often experience rejection of the choice, as the concept of technological dynamics reminds us. This means that ethical reflection should be considered throughout the design process, especially in the initial stages. development. . . .Detailed discussion is essential before technology can proceed" (2000, 542). Johnson et al. describe the first step in the design process in familiar terms: "Look at the problem area and choose a problem to choose. satisfaction is a relatively subjective process

254

KA Neeley i HC Luegenbiehl

The design program falls within the broad realm of political and business strategy. Engineers should be encouraged to become more involved in this important part of the design process. [emphasis added] This is where the broad issues of environmental sustainability of design outcomes are most effectively addressed. It is also where fundamental ethical choices are made about professional priorities, including what will and will not be addressed" (2000, 291 and 292). This framework redefines the engineer's appropriate analysis and decision-making domains—thus creating moral responsibility. If we can use what what we know about socio-technical systems, we must also recognize what we do not know. A persuasive design discourse must be grounded in a sound philosophy of engineering, which is also grounded in a sound philosophy of technology and asks three fundamental questions: How do technologies evolve? How are they brought about choices about which potential technologies to develop and which to ignore? Who makes those choices? (Paraphrased here by Johnston, Gostelow, & King, 2000, p. 542) While we have made progress in answering these questions, we have not yet answered the them in a way that engineers can easily manipulate.Furthermore, a key task of the philosophy of engineering is to reconcile the macro and micro levels of the philosophy of technology, described by Martin and Schinzinger as "the ultimate locus of the individual as action" (1989, 331). The broader responsibility inherent in the design process can be brought to the attention of the engineers involved in the design process; however, the extent to which engineers as designers make the question The right to impose their own values in the process of technological development remains important (Luegenbiehl, 1985, 93). This last point highlights the importance of addressing how engineers and non-engineers think and talk about the work of engineers. .

6 One way to develop an interesting and accessible story about individual and collective empowerment. One way to overcome the current dichotomy between individual responsibility and technological inevitability is to reframe discussions of technological progress and individual agency around a common theme with a broader sense of responsibility for humanity as a frame of intent. As an example, here we will use "Centennial Sermon on the 100th Anniversary of St. John the Divine, New York City" (McDonough, 1993) by William McDonough. It guides us to a process that allows us to develop a compelling story in which engineers play a key role as responsible ethical agents and can identify relevant decision-making processes. Interestingly, Macdonald – an architect, not a priest or theologian – decided to make his first official public statement about his views on the creation of technology in the form of sermons and its spread in cathedrals. From the beginning, his ideas were literally and figuratively framed in the context of traditional moral and ethical authority. it is also used in the Bible

Transcendence

255

Verbal and visual language articulates his new definition of design: "If we understand that design leads to the expression of human intent, if the things we make with our hands must be sacred, and the earth that gives us life must be respected, then things must not only be created from uplift above the earth, but we must also return to Earth, water, water to water, so that everything on Earth can freely return without harm to any living system" (McDonough, 1993, 3). Design—making things with hands—transcends a pragmatic attitude and becomes a sacred activity that either respects our life or blocks its source. For readers whose spiritual dimension is not compelling in this framework, MacDonald offers a different imaginative turn aimed at "designing the self as the first signal of human intention" (1993, 3). This concept is inseparable from "design, ecology, ethics and making things". In this model we represent and signal "our wishes and intentions". In other words, our designs communicate and announce our intentions even when we don't say a word. Designing a product to express a principle or idea in visible form. They embody and embody and illustrate our intentions even when we do not express them explicitly. In this case, "let's say" artifacts, systems and structures. McDonough drew our attention to this when he designed and serviced a system in a certain way: "Our culture uses a design strategy that basically says you don't have enough (1993, pp. 3-4). McDonough takes the idea of a product or design a step further. using the concept of "idioms" that have meaning in the context of design and communication to "speak" our desires and intentions. Instead of the "industrial design idiom" that we can associate with the concept of development, it is based on "design for nature" - in other words, the idea that "waste equals food" where all waste produced can be used as other food for the system." All the materials that nature gives us are constantly returned to the earth, even without the concept of waste as we understand it. Everything is constant in a cycle where all waste equals food for other biological systems" (1993, 4). This new model is a dynamic that encourages creativity and evocation, and is in perfect harmony with the "idiom of industrial design". Different ethical frameworks are compatible. In the field of technical design, especially sponsored in capitalist organizations, the equivalent of MacDonald's model is the emerging notion that "doing good, doing good", that is, touching things with the purpose of balancing financial balances. the bottom line is ethics and social welfare (Finkel, 2002, 2). The "doing good" approach led Northwestern and Wharton researchers to suggest that ethical and problematic issues of social responsibility "become the central focus of managerial thinking" (2002, 5). "Balancing financial success with a progressive social agenda can be very complex for business" (2002, 5), but it can also be a major source of individual and collective empowerment, especially for engineers with their own professional histories emphasizing "going well."

256

KA Neeley i HC Luegenbiehl

in conclusion

As we discussed in this chapter, breaking discourse necessity requires recognition and confrontation with the sources of its strength.In short, we need to find a way to increase public discourse and develop affordable and interesting stories that allow individual engineers to make a difference.Developing an affordable discourse that helps people reinterpreting their own experiences is an essential step in this process.The second is to help the technological professional community and those out of care to understand that we can choose the forms of discourse in which we will include and that these elections are important.A key factor in achieving these goals is the inclusion of STS scientists in public discourse and providing accessible and convincing design narratives as a process perpetrated ethical considerations.The purpose of this chapter is not a description of the nature of technological development.It is about focusing on the implications of the way we talk about the process of introducing technology into society.We believe that, as well as elsewhere, the way we talk about technology is key to how we see things themselves.This is not a new claim in its theoretical dimension (see, for example, Heidegger, 1977), but it is often neglected in the dominant focus on the facility itself (technology).The OPS performs the admiration of a valuable job to study the double influence, feedback between technology and society, but the ideas of inevitable progress is implicit in the return loop.However, in order to live in accordance with ethical concerns, it is important to not observe technological development only as a chain of development, with human actors that simply become another link, but as opportunities for expressing creative and primish pulses (Renaissance.in).If we can focus the technical discussion on this dimension, then key players in the process will have the opportunity for ethical debate and thinking.It will be wondering how, why and why technological innovations without predetermined responses based on limited progress concepts such as increased efficiency.The outcome of this process will be considered accepted by the OPS Community: it will be determined.

Reference Ellul, J., 1964, The Technology Society, J. Wilkinson, Ref., E., 2002, Working good working Good: New base Kelloggy Major Exha Exha Rudars Social Context Business, Kellogg World (winter 2002);http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/kwo/win02/doswell.htm Frost, B., 1996, High -tech Historical Dimension: Politics and rhetoric in the progress of the Twentieth century in politics and rhetorical studies in the twentieth century.US Historial Historial Association (Atlanta, January 1996).Heidegger, M., 1977, Question of technology and other essays, W. Lovit, Tran, Tran s., Harper Torchbooks, New York.

beyond inevitability

257

Hughes, T. P., 1987, The development of large-scale technological systems, In: The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in Technology and Technological History, W. Bijker, T.P. Hughes and T. Pinch and T. Pinch, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, p. 76–80. , Paragon, New York. , Upper Saddle River, NJ, H. C. PA, p. 79–98. : Centennial 100 -jarig jarig jubilee van de kathedraal van St. John the Divine, New York City, February 7, 1993; , Cambridge, Massachusetts, B. van leren.en Technologie.30(2); http://www.cjlt.ca/content/vol30.2/cjlt30-2-2--art-1.html Schlosser, E. The New York Perennial's All-American Meal. - Converserende Ed. 8(1):73–92. Van Gorp, A. Envan de Poel, I., 2001, Technische Ontwerpprocessen intwerpprocessen, IEEE Technol.en soc.mag.mag.herfst 2001:15-222 Williamss intwerpprocessen, R., 2002, Adaptations: Historians Confront Technology Transformation, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA L., 1977, Autonomous Technology, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

Design and Responsibility The Interdependence of Natural, Artificial and Human Systems S. D. Noam Cook

This article looks at design as the realization of natural goals. He argues that the concept of design requires us to be able to distinguish between three different types of systems: artificial and human, of course. As for the stability and maintenance of the other two. Design means the raw material of natural and responsible man-made systems by imposing goals and values on man-made systems. consider other. Now we live more and more dependent on the stability of artificial systems; this in turn depends increasingly on our ability to evaluate - our ability to determine only the judgment that a design is worth making and how best to realize it.

present

Design is the imposition of human purpose to nature.The result is neither human nor natural, but something that exists in its own world, whose form and function cannot be explained exclusively with human or natural terms.In modern times, this world of artifacts is as foreign to us as the country that created it, but it is still our primary home.We depend on his presence and stability for our daily life to flow smoothly, and we tend to contact him when life problems make us seek solutions.Although we live in a world less so created than created, and more and more products of our own skill, we often live as if we are barely aware of this as a uniqueness of a design object.The intertwining of human purposes with the natural materials that make the character involves specific requirements for maintenance and stability, demanding that we take on a surprising amount of responsibility in the choice that artifacts should exist, how they should function and how long they must continue to act.exist.

SDN Cook, State University of San Jose State

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

259

260

S.D.N. chef

None of the artifacts who make this world have a role in itself.Whether it's tools, buildings or constructions, computer applications or chemical pencils to other artifacts.Specific artifact design features also occur in social contexts and only different functions can be used in this context.Light not only comes from the lamp, but from the interaction of the lamp with a fallen person.Complex corporations, such as coal mining, car production or irrigation of huge agricultural areas, require more and more subtle connections between technical and social elements.Together with the modern expansion of such companies, there are increasing efforts that this world of artifacts is not understood not as individual technologies, but as "socio-technical systems".The idea of socio-technical systems was created in the mid-20th century.Cybernetica (Wiener, 1962. [Orig. 1948]), Operation Research (March and Simon, 1993) and System Theory (Bertalanffy, 1968), all adults during World War II, introducing the terminology collection of individual devices, a term forOne device and term for that device work together.Sometimes surveys in these areas also evaluate the role of teams working on these systems.However, the work of the Tavistock group, especially Emery and the three hundred (1960), starting in the late 1950s, began to explicitly focus on what they called "socio-technological systems" (in fact, Emery and Trest may have coined the term).This is a key idea of observing equipment and people, and the functional unity of the task, and the application of this perspective on concept, design, application and assessment of what was then considered socio-technical systems.In recent years, many areas have recognized the practice and need for this perspective.All artifacts are also built into the social world in a simple but fundamental sense.That is, all artifacts of socio-technical systems are partly because they make it easier: they are our extensions.What our artifacts do always refers to what we do.Therefore, they should be understood not only in terms of the use of "constructed" functions, but also in terms of human activities that use these functions and human goals or defects that serve them.Even a simple alarm clock housing reflects this denture.It is often noticed that alarm clock, once set and included, can work autonomously, or without our immediate intervention.However, this does not mean that it is completely autonomous.Never technically.If I were to attach a siren to the bomb, I would be responsible for the explosion, not the device.In this sense, our artifacts are at least inevitably prosthetically, both instrumental and moral.Even if we design our technologies in such a way that they have a certain level of tool autonomy, they will always remain morally prosthetics.In this context, there is another important way in which artifacts relating to human issues relate to human values.The design can only be explained by calling for its (intended) function, since a set of functions can always be achieved with more than one design.Because of this, all the lights are not the same and they are not

design and responsibility

261

All cars, water bottles, power plants, software interfaces, etc. In addition to function, artifact design must be interpreted in terms of explicit or implicit value choices made by the designer.The fact that artifact exists suggests that someone first brought a value court to deserve it.Such value courts can be aesthetic, moral or both.But they are always part of the design.Thus, mixing human purposes with natural things produces artifacts that necessarily reflect the intentions and values of their creators.But in order to better understand how sociotechnical systems are built into the human world, including a formative role that value courts have in the human world, I believe we have to expand our understanding of sociotechnical systems.In particular, we need to understand how the design of artifacts, especially the complexes on which we live today, is associated with three different but interdependent types of systems: natural, artificial and human.Therefore, in what follows, I examine some of what I believe is necessary for a wider understanding of what we do when we impose human purposes in nature.

system and design

T. H. Huxley (2002 [Orig. 1896]) in his 1893 paper "Evolution and Ethics" considered the difference between jungles and gardens when investigating the mechanisms of evolution. The distinction between jungles and gardens is widely established in evolutionary theory and environmental studies. I think it is worth revisiting this distinction because its implications are crucial to understanding how the world on which modern life depends came to be. In modern terms, jungles can be explained by attracting the stimulus of evolutionary adaptation, weather disasters and other activities of nature. We could also simply call jungles different types of "niches". Indeed, they can be considered examples of what I would like to call "natural systems". That is, they are systems whose activities can be explained by reference to natural factors (in the sense that these factors are different from those rooted in human action or activity). The field of environmental studies has given us increasing sophistication in specifying the characteristics of natural systems, including how they function under the influence of human activities, reflecting De Wewey's (1938) distinction between "living in" and "dependent on" our environment. Natural systems, like all systems, have unique requirements for maintenance and stability. In the short term, the jungle needs water, nutrients and sunlight to maintain itself as a healthy living system. Because of its long-term stability, its ability to maintain a critical balance between stagnation and chaos that allows it to sustain the jungle, it has a jungle that needs internal regulators to respond to wider climate change, the demand for new species, resilience to conditions of erosion, etc. Amazingly, we can be equally present in in the garden as well as at work in the jungle. Rather, if we do not ensure the stability and nutrition of the garden

262

S.D.N.

As part of the needs of the plant kingdom, for example by providing water and sunlight, it will wither or die. In this sense, a garden is as much a natural system as a jungle. However, unlike the jungle, what happens in the garden cannot be explained solely by reference to the workings of nature, since the garden is also an artefact. It was created by man as a jungle on which a unique design of human origin was imposed. All special characteristics or requirements arising from the fact that it is a garden and not a jungle (ploughing, weeding, fertilization, etc.) have no origin or standard in nature. Instead, they are fully human. If we do not take care of the stability of the garden as an artifact and a necessity of life, it will quickly return to its original natural state. Any satisfactory interpretation of the form and function of the garden therefore requires an appeal to nature as well as a demand to design it as an artefact. This applies to all artifacts. Whether it's gardens or cities, tools or technology, cars or the Internet, all human creation is a mixture of natural materials and human purpose, and both demand our attention. Bridges should be understood in terms of the functions they provide and the properties of the raw materials that make them possible (Cook and Brown, 1999). On the one hand, the shape of a particular bridge can be adjusted to span a certain distance, carry a range of loads, and so on. On the other hand, its shape must be considered in accordance with the nature of the bridge. Per. A bridge built to meet a particular set of span and load requirements will look very different if the raw materials are different -- stone will provide one set of design options, steel another. Because such systems are artifacts, and because their forum and function cannot be adequately explained in terms of the properties of natural systems alone, I call them "artificial" systems. (I prefer this word to "artificial" because it is neutral, not "artificial" because it can imply "fake," which artificial systems clearly are not. "Artificial" also means a reminder We remember that such systems are human creations.) As humans , we interact not only with nature and artifacts, but also with other human beings. This includes all forms of human interaction, from conversation to teamwork to organizational behavior to the forms of discourse and activity necessary for vital public life. According to Vickers (1996 [orig. 1965]; 1983), aspects of human interaction that differ from those mediated by natural or artificial systems can be understood as the functioning of "human systems." If I communicate with you by shouting across a field or by phone or email over the Internet, then natural and artificial systems make our communication possible. But they alone cannot explain the meaning of what we say or the web of expectations our communication fulfills or the weight we attach to what we say. All of this happens within the human system that you and I share, which we probably inherited from all the common social groups we belong to and human culture in general. We can call, but we communicate with each other. The success of our communication depends on the existence and stability of a set of human norms that make our communication meaningful and useful, as well as on the clarity of the signals transmitted over the telephone.

design and responsibility

263

Human systems include those norms that shape and guide human activity, especially our aesthetic and moral values; they are unique among systems because they have an axiological dimension. The actions we take and the choices we make reflect our values. They are also reflected in the work we do with all three types of systems. How we shape or destroy nature, what artifacts we choose to create and how we design and use them, and how we interact with each other, all speak to what we value and what we find attractive or desirable to do. In interpreting garden form, we must refer to those values of a distinctly human character embedded in garden design: the aesthetic tradition that enables us to distinguish English gardens from Japanese gardens, and to judge gardens as modest and still world-class (see Cook, 2005 for a parallel presentation of systems and ethics). In this sense, a bridge is not just a static physical object. Just as an understanding of design must include the possibilities of materials, it must also include the values of the designer. Why it was built on site, why it allowed certain modes of transportation and not others, why public resources were used for a large facade, while a more ordinary bridge could have the same load-bearing capacity, all this had to attract operations to design, build and human systems who maintain bridges. Conversely, why a bridge has certain physical dimensions and properties cannot be adequately explained without reference to the values and goals of the human system that created it. Like all artefacts, bridges are the product and embodiment of natural, man-made and human systems. The distinction between these three types of systems finds a heightened parallel in Hannah Arendt's (1998 [before 1958]) distinction between work, work, and action in her study of human activity. In fact, Arendt described all human activity as consisting of these three distinct forms. Nonetheless, I will apply her focused treatment of activities to broader systems concepts. For Arendt, work is that part of human activity that allows us to maintain our own biological existence. "Work," said Arendt, "is an activity that corresponds to the biological processes of the human body, the spontaneous growth, metabolism, and eventual decline of the body in relation to the vital needs that work creates and nourishes during life." (Arendt, 1998, 7) On a personal level, this seems to include at least eating and drinking, protection from natural disasters, and hiding from predators. At the group level, such as a community or even a species, this would include activities such as adaptation to the local environment and reproduction. All this forms a complex of interconnected and interdependent activities that we share to some extent with other species. These activities are part of the biological world and therefore part of nature. Thus, work is an aspect of human activity devoted to the maintenance of ourselves as natural systems. Work, as Arendt defined it, has to do with establishing and maintaining "a world of things distinct from any natural environment." (Arendt, 1998, 7) That is, work creates a world of artifacts. These artifacts are clearly human (other species can create things, but not real human things), that is, they are the result of human intentions imposed on nature.

264

S.D.N.

Together they form an object and a small network of tools for which we live more and more, and existence and stability in the modern world are becoming increasingly necessary in any form of life that we can know or think. Therefore, work is the side of human activities that create and maintain the human system. According to Arendt , action is an aspect of human activity "directly between people, without the intervention of things or materials..." (Arendt, 1998, 7). I will make this more spacious. It does not seem to mean the mediation of things and materials. differs from this mediation. "Things" are the essence of the human world and "material". Both things and material can provide human interaction, but neither of them can be such a content of interaction, nor is it the goal of its realization. Therefore, action is an aspect of formation and maintaining human activities. All three types of systems can also work together, and the flourishing of one system can depend on the stability of another system. As we see that if we ignore its needs as a natural system, the artificial system of the garden will fail, so we can see that when we ignore the demands of the human system, technology will fail. Similarly, if there is no manual system to meet its needs, the garden turns too quickly into the jungle. As far as the city, organization and technology are concerned, they are all similar to a version of the return of the jungle. The characteristics of our values cannot be encompassed or compensated by the characteristics of our cultural relics. People live in a systemic network of these three types. In the 21st century, the successful operation of our ordinary daily life, let alone survival in special circumstances, depends entirely on the flourishing and stability of these interdependent systems (Cook, 1995). In our time, I think that the design and maintenance of this network of systems is the main moral responsibility of human beings, simply because our existence now it depends on it.

design and responsibility

3.1 System mislabeling and the fallacy of pseudonaturalism Because different types of systems have different properties, including different maintenance and stability requirements, it is impractical or even irresponsible to treat one type as another. For example, it is a conceptual and practical mistake to treat artificial or human systems as if they were natural systems. However, this happens very often. It is also the most dangerous form of system mischaracterization, because it tends to obscure the role of values in the functioning of human and artificial systems. For example, I recently heard a famous economist comment that "jobs, like water, naturally go to the cheapest suppliers". technically

design and responsibility

265

However, there is nothing "natural" in this statement.Economy and labor markets are not part of nature, these are systems that people create.The way the work "flows" is the result of the way we design artificial systems.Taking it for granted, there is no basis for taking responsibility he can bring.In particular, the treatment of human and artificial systems (eg natural systems) comes down to what I call "replicative naturalism".If "naturalism" could be defined by natural concepts of understanding (lightning caused by weather conditions, not Zeus), "false naturalism" would mean something like a natural understanding, especially if it could be misleading.In this sense, false naturalism requires at least two important traps that affect our understanding of the system.First, the more we care about replicating naturalism, the greater our chances of diagnosing problems and designing solutions that correspond to natural systems, but not human systems.If we think that the course of jobs is the cheapest supplier is natural, it could be helpful to devise government policies designed to avoid interference with this "natural" process.(Indeed, this can even mean a sense of "naturalness" "good" or "right".) If we see this in terms of systems produced, then consider strength.Another problem stems from the fact that we usually do not think about ethics as part of natural systems.We can be considered responsible for the way we treat nature, but in nature we do not find the way the ethics itself, especially in the notion of responsibility, requires.No one is responsible for the damage done to them by a hurricane.However, we consider people morally responsible to help the tool or team.Thus, naturalism is incapable of responsibly and effectively addressing the moral aspects of human and artificial systems, as it treats them as natural systems, such as hurricane, without a clear moral dimension.If the course of work is considered a natural event, discussions about its ethics are as reasonable as discussions about the morality of the tide.This can also be seen when we try to justify our choices of design choices such as "what we use function" or "my opponent's plan does not work."Comments like these indicate functional aspects of people and artificial systems, but imply that, like natural systems, they have no value dimension.The reliance on functionality only hides the role of value in the design of the choice we bring to the consequences of these choices.Our design choices are never about what works and what doesn't.They also always talk about what we want to achieve and how to find the right path for it.By maintaining a discussion at the level of what it is and what does not function, it misses or avoids the need for an effective resolution of values inherent in all design elections.

3.2

Infrastructure of design and value

Just as a natural system is possible, an artificial system must serve the purpose of a human system, and the human system also has what I call "valuable infrastructure."

266

S.D.N.

Tell us how to deal with nature and how to design tools. Valuable infrastructure includes the value of individuals and groups, the value of their lives and work, as well as the various means that use what they do. As false naturalism implies, the connection between our value of infrastructure and what what we do is powerful, even though it is sometimes not recognized. For you, valuable things have played an important role in what you think is valuable and want to see it, who you like to go with. (For a similar treatment, see Schein, 2004 [Original 1985]) .We have found that this is what we do. (If value does not affect our behavior, it is strange to mention their values.) That is, the design of the pseudo -Amiga community reflects and expresses value in its infrastructure value to find it. (Perhaps it will be difficult to understand the valuable infrastructure of individuals or groups. I have noticed that if you ask people what their morals or values are, they will usually feel uncomfortable. If you ask them to be valuable to them, they are valuable they are valuable . There is an interesting and useful dialogue between the work or space for their life and the work or interaction with others. If they can show you or you can practice or social interaction in their actual work or social interaction, the values of infrastructure Structure, the values of infrastructure structure The image of the image can become more robust.) The importance of infrastructure values for the design of a designer's technological relic and the importance of social practice that they embedded in the project team can be seen. The team designed an early computer conferencing application that can establish a "virtual office" network via audio and video connections, as well as a virtual equivalent of typical office equipment (such as whiteboards, filing cabinets, bookshelves, etc.).The first the goal of the development of this application is to set up virtual offices by setting up and configuring audio and video connections and organizing virtual office devices via a computer. Then others in the network can "access" the virtual office, connect to a meeting via audio and video, consult files in the virtual archive cabinet or explain the ideas on the virtual board. Leave a message on the white board and delete the document from the filing cabinet. If the owner of the office allows, etc. ("The virtual" element of such small tools is a particularly provocative example of "prosthetics" and other technical relics.) The team leader decided to design the application as flexibly as possible. His idea is that each end user can design a virtual office, which will meet his personal needs and style. I talked to him in general and I soon discovered that he is passionate about this flexibility. He gave the most flexibility, which is why was designed by the team at different application levels. When we first talked about it, he gave the most obvious examples of the interface, such as having or without a virtual board, we can set it up and decide who can access it. But when we continue this point, he raises a problem flexibility

design and responsibility

267

At the level of software architecture, software code can be written even in several cases. I asked him in different ways why his flexibility was so important. At the end of the interview, he began to prove that the flexibility of users in the workplace of democracy was reasonable.In my opinion, flexibility, ability and democracy of users and democracy in the workplace, these are values that I mean -the real value of moral characteristics. He built these values literally (for similar views, see the winner, 1986).I mean "literally", because someone cannot explain why the application has certain characteristics, that is, it is performed without reference of these values. When ready, the virtual office request tested the computer installed on a group of managers in the laboratory.glad it became part of the test, they were immediately completed after installing the application, and they are hard to use. Sublica. In any case, it means that managers are hard to benefit from the flexibility of the effort and enthusiasm of the project team. In this stage of the application looks like a potential failure.In I talked about the requirements with some members of the Government. When I asked them to participate in the test and what they did or did not do, they said they could not feel it and felt "abandoned".The team came in, the application was installed and left. The administrators of the administrators want more guidelines and help. In further discussion with managers and employees, I know very well that one of them is about their work, and what I feel and feel is worth.The source of the problem.As the artificial system, the application of the virtual office has determined the value of the design team. However, the design team and the administrators are human systems, different infrastructure.flexibility of the user proposed by the design team clashes with an administrator who wants to be supported.The importance of democratic approval.What, the problem that is in the original design design of the application is not technology, because it is a science. Working with training problems, the re -configuration function of the application is unlikely to solve the situation, because its standard is the first.Given the infrastructure of the value of the collision of two interconnected human systems, it is not a function, but the value.It's a value.This is the standard for solutions. It is important that I think the conflict of value needs to be resolved. On the level of the human system. This actually appeared when two groups began to talk about matte testing. Thementers began to realize that developers flexibly mean that they had more in their handsPower, although technically this is more in terms of handling new technology in the workplace, the value supported by managers is more comfortable than them while causing people of people at the same time

268

S.D.N.

Project team leader. The design team can then better plan the next phase of the project to include more support for managers while still building good flexibility into the application design. A virtual office application can be seen as a sociotechnical system. It is conceived as a technology that connects members of a social group who in turn can configure the technology according to their needs and styles. In terms of the broader perspective of sociotechnical systems presented here, an application is an artificial system designed to perform various functions of the human systems that use it. As an artificial system, design cannot be explained only in terms of the technical function it is supposed to serve, but must also relate to the values of the designer. To be useful, to thrive, users must also configure the application in a way that is stable enough to provide the desired social functionality, allowing them to thrive as a "virtual" group in a sustainable way as they do. and in a sustainable way. The test failed because the admin group did not take full advantage of the application's flexibility. This is due to a mismatch between the design value infrastructure embedded in the application and the user value infrastructure. Thus, both the original design of apps as technological artifacts and their inability to provide their intended social functions are rooted in two dimensions of human system value.

in conclusion

Today, our lives depend on the complex network of the system and are increasingly dependent on their maintenance and stability.This network contains three types of systems, natural, artificially created and human, which are different as well as dependent.Artificial and human systems, from economies through cities to organizations and the latest technologies, are products of human design.They embody our judgment about what is worth doing and how best to do it.If we formulate the patterns of human life that need to be realized in a way that we should be able to accept, and think that everything we can do depends on the flourishing of nature, then we need conscious estimates that make up more explicit what it makes as and what elements of our design.

Literature Arendt, H., 1998, The Human Condition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago (Original Cheng, 1958).BARSTALANFY, L. von, 1968, general theory of system: foundations, development and application, George Brasilor, New York, NY.S. D. N., 2005, Best Rules: Leadership, Ethics and the Human System, in: Search for Ethics Leaders: The Ethics of the Leadership, J. B. Ciulla, T. L. Price and S. E. E. Murphy, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.

design and responsibility

269

Cook, S.D.N. and Brown, J.S., 1999, Bridging epistemology: The generative dance between organizational knowledge and organizational knowledge, Org. science. 10(4):381-400. Cook, S.D.N., 1995, Autonomy, interdependence and moral governance: pluralism rocking the boat, in: Rethinking public policy-making: questioning assumptions, challenging convictions, M. Blunden and M. Dando, eds., London, p. . 153, p. 153-171. Dewey, J. , 1938., Logic: A Theory of Research, Henry Holt and Company, New York. Emery, F. and Trist, E., 1960., Socio-technical systems, in: Management Science, Models and Techniques, Vol. 2, C.W. Edited by Churchman and M. Verhulst, Pergamon, Oxford. Huxley, T.H., 2002, Evolution and Ethics [1893] In: Evolution and Ethics and Other Papers, Pacific University Press, Honolulu (originally 1896). Simon of J.G. March and H.A., 1993, Blackwell Publishing, Williston Organization. Schein, E.H., 2004. Organizational Culture and Leadership, Third Edition, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (original 1985). Vickers, Sir Geoffrey, 1983. Human Systems Are Different, Harper & Row Publishers, London. Vickers, Sir Geoffrey 1996 The Art of Judgment: A Study in Policy Making. Saga Publications. Thousand Oaks (Quart. 1965). Wiener, N., 1962, Cybernetics: Control and Communication in Animals and Machines, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (Orig. 1948). Winner, L., 1986, with political papers? , in: Whales and Reactors: In Search of Limits in the High-Tech Age, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

The third part

architectural design

How to change the role of architects in society and process how much Davis

This chapter describes how the architectural relationship to production culture changes over time and how this change affects the quality of the building world. The architecture we know today appeared in the 19th century. At that time, the architectural design process was separated from the construction process. This split changed the essence of the design process itself, which led to the profession. In this profession, intuitive judgment is the core of the architect's ability to directly respond to a design problem that directly appears to the architect and no longer exists. At the end of this chapter, theoretical research on the recent relationship between creative design/construction activities and the quality of the world of construction provides a basis for examining the dominant dominant paradigms of architectural practice.

Procedure

Most architectural criticism is concerned with the problems of architecture itself: form, aesthetics, functional methods, how it adapts or does not adapt to its environment, how it promotes or does not promote sustainable development. This criticism usually assumes that the architect is a neutral agent, and what the work of an architect has not changed throughout history."The architect" built the temple of Patonnon; "Architect" built Saudi; now architects practice, so they must have done the same. Although historians usually think of the Renaissance as the period of modern architects, which means the shape of the building environment and how the actual work process of architects affects the disputes of buildings. For example, the Gothic cathedral was considered the product of craftsmen who completely acted with intuition. Even if there are no drawings, it was in sharp contrast to the rationality of the Renaissance and all subsequent formations - perhaps, besides, except for that Little Artificial Resistance, besides the practice of handicrafts.

H. Davis, University of Oregon

P.E. Vermas et al. (ed.), Philosophy and Design. © Springer2008

273

274

Davis

The reality is much more complicated.There are indeed clear rules that led the design of the cathedral, and these rules were understood by architects, who were also masters of stonemasons.These architects draw a lot of drawings.But not all drafts are made before construction, which is a practice for large buildings for more than a hundred years.The cathedral project was closely related to its construction, so the drafts were made as needed in the context of the completed building.This was necessary for the building for which the construction had been needed for decades and which would be built by different masonry teams, each with subtly different ways of construction, stone processing, details of shaping within the general canon of Gothic architecture... The background is that during the decades of construction of the cathedral, both builders and buildings were gradually changing.There are different clients, different masons are available, money is drying and comes from new sources.(James, 1982) But all this is done under the common concept of style and general shape of the finished building.However, the detailed final shape of the building was initially unpredictable.This is somewhat possible because construction is based on the cover.There was no main contract, the main offers, or thinking about the details of the back of the building before turning the first shovel.Today, architects work completely differently.The most critical difference is that due to the general contractor and the general contract, the offer is required, so the building must be fully specified before construction.This means that architects must predict details without the context of the building itself.To the extent that the design act of design represents this prediction, the architect is a designer.But most of the architect's job is completely separated from the construction activity.While the main responsibility of the architect was involved in the construction site, the standard construction fee is now 1.5% of the cost of construction for what is known as "construction management", which is an activity that follows the design.Therefore, medieval architects and modern architects were responsible or fully responsible for the shape of the building, and each drew or produced many drawings that, when together, described in detail the building.But the process they go through is different.The activities of medieval architects were closely related to construction, while the activities of modern architects were separated from construction.As will be explained in detail later in this chapter, today's architectural practice has aspects guided by artistic innovation, as well as normative aspects, or aspects guided by the rules outside the architect control.These two aspects of the architect's work always coexist.During the 19th century, however, the usual social point of view, which were the basis of normative practices, was increasingly changing under the influence of industrialization and became more and more technologically determined rules.Most of the built environments have always consisted of buildings that were mostly the result of normative practices, not dominated by artistic innovation.

The form and process of transformation of the social roles of architects

275

The rise of a modern architect

In the early 19th and early 20th centuries, with the rise of general contractors, engineering and legal majorettes, the role of architects changed dramatically. In the past, the architect was responsible for the construction itself. As the buildings became more and more complex, the architects increasingly left the construction site. Nevertheless, the architects tried to maintain complete control of the buildings. The change of this character symbolizes the change of the entire architectural culture. It became increasingly fragmented and professional, without a philosophy of style or value. Isaiah Rogers was an architect who practiced in New York and Boston in the 19th century. His diary is now preserved in the Iveri Architecture Library at Columbia University, vividly depicting the architectural practice of his time. .These entries came from 1838 and started in the career of Rogers.(Rogers, 1838) January 4.The board directed me to go to Qinxi to investigate the situation of the quarry.Finish the large plastering room.Flat map of two houses designed for red hook .12. February.Hang the mud from the church dome ceiling.Rejection of sugar house plans.Mr. Woolci does not want to pay 2.5% money for plan and supervision.YOU PAY LETTER POST, $3.06 now.I went to Mr. Bai Jinhan's lecture on Egypt. very good.23. February.Exchange cost is estimated to end.I went to a book auction at night.I bought a set of Newton's Witruway.Large copy is 6 3/4 per volume.30. March.Plan the marble work in the proportion room.Accept the director of the New Jersey Stone Company.The indemnity company divides 10 shares.Forging is completed.4. April.Start jumping on the back steps of the exchange.Prepare the center of settings for the arc corners of Wall Street and Hanover.Fine weather.Mr Barry (?) Is the marble designed for the door of the exchange.Buy a cow on Thursday.Paid $50.00.W [all ] and the stone horns of William Street.Poor horses are no good.5. April.The work of the Exchange is progressing smoothly.Need to make suggestions of granite at the Edgecomb quarry.The cow goes home.Plan produced by the Long Island house.Grand and Grand and Grand scales such as the Corner of the Center Street.6. April. In the center of the room are the corners of Hanover and Wall Street. Place the Bluestone on Wall Street. It was measured on Wall Street. It was found that the center was 10 cm west, more than the plan. April 18. April. Arrive in Boston at 10 o'clock. Call the mayor. Give him a map of the city hall. He looked like ... October 14. at the exhibition. Bad weather - it's cloudy all day. The board signed contracts with Mr. Breent about Eaves and Masonry Engineering. Completed sketches of the aerial map of the theater on the corners of Broadway and Chamber Street and Redberg Street. I bought a rice cooker. 2. December.Stop the mast at the lashing show.I put it on the base.In the evening a hotel plan was made for Washington.Breaking the strands and putting all the weight on it.Pay for dinner 44 cents.8. December. All day at home. Read books about geology and earth.

The journal describes the activities of a person deeply involved in the building, and the activities between us are apparently seamlessly coherent

276

Davis

Now consider quite insulated.Rogers designs the buildings, directly monitors construction, solves problems on the construction site and chooses materials.It was a typical job at the time.It also shows what a written and educated person would do in an academic lecture when working with Stone.By the end of the 19th century, things were completely different.The main difference is the emergence of large construction companies and large companies for general contracts, which work together, but have a legal body, the entire contract, which makes the activities awarded to Isaiah Rogers part of a noce network, quite independent.The professional transformation in the nineteenth century was fundamental in terms of the process.They sought to centralize control in the hands of architects;develop other institutions such as general contracting and regulatory agencies;And they eliminated craftsmen as the main repository of architectural knowledge.They established the activity of the design as an intellectual activity, perhaps completely separate from the very production of things.We tend to think about the 19th century in terms of countless architectural styles, but professional and procedural shifts were more fundamental.Probably the most critical concentration of knowledge, and thus power over the environment built.During the Renaissance, such as Florence, the Golden Age of Architecture, there was the power of the Medicine family.But at the same time, the power of architecture and knowledge of how to build it was expanded.In fact, the architect is not at the top of the hierarchy of architectural action as he was trying to be in the 19th century.During the Renaissance, the client was in charge and had the knowledge of the position.Below the client is sopratante, a combination of the main performer and engineering officer.Somewhere below is an architect - an important but clear place (Goldthwaite, 1980) over the centuries between the Renaissance and 19th century, as the types of buildings have become more and more diverse and unpredictable, controlling, and knowledge becomes centralized, rather than simultaneous.The concentration of the power and control of the expert and manager has its pand at the level of construction workers, which Marx calls "alienation of work", and the historians of architecture and work call it "Deskilling".

Architecture and engineering

A brief comparison of architects and engines can help shed light on the processes architects use and how they have changed. To a large extent, this debate is about normative practice, not about architects like Frank Lloyd Wright or the practice of engineers like John Augustus Roebling, someone who deliberately breaks the prescribed rules. But even such a heroic figure cannot quite escape. The difference in the nature of the product that is commonly seen defines the difference between an architect and an engineer. architects design buildings;

The form and process of transforming social roles of architects

277

Engineers design the structures of buildings, machines or electronic assemblies, aircraft or industrial and technological processes. And buildings are more difficult to specify. This in itself is not as important as the fact that engineering problems are much more limited than architectural problems in terms of required performance. This is usually measured in money. For example, the design of a modern aircraft will optimize many variables: fuel economy, passenger capacity, speed, reliability, design and production costs, and safety. Each of these variables can be quantified and reduced to dollars and cents. In the case of aviation, where profit margins are small, if any, weight per kilogram, fuel per mile per hour, speed per mile per hour will be factors in design success. Architecture is different, or architects are still willing to believe in it. Qualities valued by architects and emphasized by schools of architecture are things like aesthetics, comfort and compatibility with the urban environment. These things become impossible to quantify. Since the 19th century, buildings have been increasingly determined quantitatively and in such a way that specific aspects of performance are clearly classified. As Willis (1995) shows, the design of skyscrapers in New York and Chicago was largely determined by financial constraints, unlike those that guided aeronautical engineering design. In skyscraper design, several variables are optimized: total leasable area, possible rent per square meter, construction costs and financing costs. When these variables are taken into account, they result in predictable configurations and construction types: not much variation is possible. Architects understand that their role in designing these buildings is therefore severely limited; it is often said that architects can control the appearance of a building - the area of the room around the skin about 6 inches deep. Even here they are severely limited by available products and issues with building regulations, product warranties and low energy requirements. The same is true for other complex projects such as residential buildings, where land costs and infrastructure improvements, as well as construction costs and financing costs (and thus the required speed of construction) are interrelated to help determine the likely sale price of the architect-developer and developer. The resources of the bankers who, as it turns out, have the greatest control over the form of development. These types of projects are the strength of built projects today, and architects are like engineers. He/she optimizes well-defined quantitative variables, which are often related to money, and the product is evaluated based on how well this optimization is done. And engineers, at least in the nineteenth century, have some qualities of architects. Architects and engineers before the twentieth century came from similar worlds. The inventor of the steam engine, James Watt, grew up in a family of craftsmen and was apprenticed to an instrument maker in London. He was completely immersed in the material world, and this immersion was of utmost importance to him.

278

Davis

Success as an engineer. (Dickinson, 1935) The great railway engineer Robert Stephenson came from a mining community and a family deeply involved in mining. (Bailey, 2003) Indeed, in British culture in the 18th and early 19th centuries, occupations were closely related to occupations, and occupations were closely related to the everyday lives of many people. Nineteenth-century engineers, like architects, could think intuitively, not just quantitatively. Undoubtedly, both architects and engineers can work in the loop of the design process, guessing, testing and refining along the way. A biographer of the great British engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel notes his "wary attitude towards mathematical calculations which depend on unattainable precision and which, if not so, are likely to deviate from the truth." Using the same calculation method, Dr. Lardner commented on all these results about steam navigation and railway speed, which later proved to be wrong. (Vaughan, 1991) Some diary entries of Robert Stephenson, the inventor of the steam locomotive, also indicate the use of intuition in the design process. I have just received the model and think the idea is very good, but I'm afraid the credibility of the movement is rather questionable, though probably not so much as to be useful. I'll test its accuracy before I get to Ncastle - it seems very satisfactory and I sincerely hope some more mature research will confirm this as well. - I had the impression that on certain parts of the stroke the spool would move backwards instead of forwards or vice versa. - I think it is almost impossible, and the model supports this point of view, but it is too small to draw detailed conclusions from it - I want a full-scale model, only then can the factors be determined - if it fits, it deserves a Jewish eye and its inventor.. (Bailey, 2003)

In this case, Stephenson had previously raised preliminary doubts as an architect, but the verdict was overturned until the doubts were cleared and a more detailed investigation was conducted. It is common to move the scales between architectures to test proposed designs, as Stephenson suggests. But architects can work with an artifact that might last months or years, and engineers do the same, with bridges or tunnels, or design prototypes for artifacts that can be mass-produced. In the latter case, design and construction are not interconnected, nor are the specifications inaccurate for objects, such as buildings. Engineers do not share the architect's ability to apply intuitive judgment to the design of the artifact itself. Engineers do similar work to architects by applying intuitive judgment to the design of prototypes or processes. Conventional wisdom sees architecture as an artistic pursuit and technology as a mathematical/technical endeavor. The design is involved in two directions. I argued above that canonical architecture is less "art" than it appears. As processes or modes of action, architecture and technology are not opposed to each other. Architects largely function within a technical system that is very limited for artistic purposes and therefore must accept the part of the engineer whose attitude is directed towards predetermined quantitative goals. An engineer works within defined quantitative frameworks, but a designer does

The form and process of transforming social roles of architects

279

And it can use the artist's intuition. Architects and engineers, who design different classes of objects, may see the balance between objectivity and intuition differently in their own work, but they are actually at different points in the same sphere of activity. Where architects and engineers have very different idealized models of society, representing the competing values of artistic production versus efficient production, the normative practices of architecture and engineering are more similar in practice than they are different.

Architecture as a modern process

The construction industry has changed dramatically since the 19th century. One way to describe this change is that the intuitive "artistic" aspect and the objective "technical" aspect are becoming more and more distant. One of the reasons why this happened was that industrialization led to the formalization of professions and the decline of craft traditions. This means that architects can control the work of craftsmen who were previously exempt from such control, and who themselves disappear and become builders who receive orders from others. To turn skilled artisans into wage laborers, giving capital more direct control over the process. I speculate that the design language in modern architecture often referred to as the "International Style"—a language characterized by industrial components, simple details, and a lack of ornamentation—is not just art or a social movement. It arose in part because architects were unable to maintain control over the production of buildings that required details that could only be properly produced by traditional crafts. With the growing culture of traditional craft disappearing, the only way for architects to maintain control was to develop a style more suitable for "remote control" than the historical style. They are as much the result of certain modes of architectural production as they are of aesthetic preferences or social needs. This, of course, has to do with the industrial production of buildings, but the key point here is that the need to build this way comes at least in part from the time and efficiency constraints felt in practice. In the 1890s, the famous New York firm McKim Mead and White designed a building called the Metropolitan Club at Fifth Avenue and 60th Street on Manhattan's Upper East Side. McKim Mead and White were New York's best-known practitioners of the Beaux-Arts style, and their interpretation of classical architecture seemed particularly suited to New York's new efficient elite, which included banks, residences, and wealthy gentlemen's clubs like the Cosmopolitan Club. Documents related to the construction of this building are now stored in the New York Museum of History Society. These documents include letters, contracts, estimates, offers and all forms of communication between the architect and his clients, suppliers, builders, contractors and other participants.

280

Davis

The study of these documents has led to two general comments related to my argument.First, these are the files of about 7000 in size, and these are only those files from the architects of the architectural bureau who have arrived at the historic society.Secondly, mostly the company tries to have complete control over every project aspect.Fleeing his authority, from a cigar design design in the office to a detail of a blazer in a mechanical space to a armrest.In other words, aspects of authority have merged in the overall competence of the architect, which in the previous decades could be left to a craftsman or engineer.The Metropolitan Club explains that the way of construction will change.Two to thirty years after the construction, articles with titles such as the "Building Startup Company" or "How to run a construction office in an architectural publication".(Silverman, 1939) These essays clearly show that the time of the architect's gentleman has passed, that the efficiency and profit of the new lingua Franca, and the money was indeed.At about the same time, buildings began to appear in an elegant modern style without decoration.The famous exhibition "The International Style", compiled by Philip Johnson and Henry Russell Hitchcock, was organized in 1932 at the Museum of Modern Art in New York (Johnson and Hitchcock, 1932 [1966]).Although the modern movement in America lagged behind Europe, modernist sensibility began to receive a foothold on American soil.Joseph Esherick, a reputable architect from San Francisco who trained the Beaux-arts system at the University of Pennsylvania, but then designed simple and informal modern buildings, once described that Designed for IT, on Saturday, designed the house next weekapproved drawings next week.(Esherick, 1977) Esherick's early buildings were extremely easy in detail, and his narrative view was if the details were wider, neoclassical or at a high level of cooperation with craftsmen or subcontractors.This relationship between a simple process and a simple shape is not just about small buildings, but penetrates the entire environmental range.It is no accident, for example, that the plans for the US spatial decoration have been written in order to be implemented in a way without judgment, which has resulted in often a banal and simplified urban environment.The rich complexity of traditional cities is the result of a process of cultural enrichment in itself.The mechanical process of urban planning, design and construction is not neutral in terms of its construction results.Practical simplification described here indicate more general trends in the development of modern architectural theories and practices.In the twentieth century, architectural thinking culminates between "art" or what is considered to be an exclusive creative field of architect and "science", which is an increasingly stricter context of standards, codex, regulations, explicit disabilities.

The form and process of transforming social roles of architects

281

and engineering, where architects must work. 20th century architecture was a socially constructed balance between these two extremes. On the one hand, some architects see themselves as artists and want the public to see them as such. Men like Zaha Hadid and Rem Koolhaas are emblematic of architects whose art form is dominant, for whom the technical aspects of building construction are secondary. These architects will do everything in their power to replace or reinterpret technical problems to serve their artistic concepts. In many cases they collaborated with other architects who were legally responsible for the construction of the building; this allowed them to focus on the "art" and avoid responsibility. This type of program usually allows these architects to perform a wide range of international work: a local registered architect is one who really knows the local laws, materials and construction procedures and solves most of the building's problems during construction. On the other hand, modern technical systems of architects, rooted in local systems, are deeply rooted, severely limiting their ability to be "artists". These systems cover building codes, zoning ordinances, development financing, building codes, liability insurance, and construction component manufacturing. These were rationalized systems that largely assumed some of their current forms during the 19th and early 20th centuries when the industrial paradigm eventually replaced artisanal production. These systems leave limited room for the architect's discretion. Most architects realize that they have two views about their work, and school architecture programs try to maintain the idea that architecture is both an "art" and a "science." It turned out to be a shaky marriage, both professionally and academically. Firms are torn between wanting to design well and schematic design — the phase of the service that determines the basic shape of the building — accounts for 20 percent of their fees, if not less. During and after the initial phase, the architect's time is dedicated to meeting defined requirements, including those imposed by the threat of litigation. There is a close connection between changes in litigation practice and the growing divide between "art" and "science". "The modern technical system, including legal systems such as building codes and zoning ordinances, leaves little room for architect discretion. Architecture is involved. Of course, this varies from architect to architect, with varying degrees of creativity in their ideas, even in the U context of these demands, most would agree that their work is far less creative when asked to spend time during the week than they thought when they first entered the industry. There is room for creativity and invention, but many would argue that this is just superficial, leading to superficial differences between buildings. However, an early 19th century architect/builder like Isaiah Rogers worked within an intellectual framework that allowed him to make many implicit judgments. This system is also a system for designing and building more

282

Davis

The present is intertwined, which allows a dynamic relationship with buildings in the entire building.The rise of control agencies beyond the control agencies - building laws, spatial decoration plans, insurance, financing construction - resulted in architects deprived of assets for discretionary judgment.Because the architect is still a "artist", his authority has been greatly reduced, but also in this reduced authority, he still does not want to give up the illusion of a creative artist.

Christopher Alexander's Process and Work

At the beginning of the 21st century, those responsible for creating the built environment - architects and engineers - face great challenges. Buildings and cities somehow account for the majority of fossil fuel consumption as production declines and begins to decline. Cities in developing countries continue to experience massive population growth through births and migration, most of them in slums and informal settlements; hundreds of millions of people around the world live without adequate housing. Many would argue that the quality of the built environment – its ability to sustain human life and uplift spirits – has not only declined, but that does not seem to have been the goal of those who created it. Since today's paradigm of architecture and building production focuses more on the product than on the process, the main challenge we face seems to be intractable. Christopher Alexander argues that the built world as a whole—rather than the relatively small number of buildings under the direct control of architects—can only be adequately addressed through a process of radical transformation. The paradigm of individual architects designing individual buildings is outdated in a world where much of the environment is controlled by builders and immigrants, and external forces are beyond the architect's control. Alexander's work has three main components that help define his focus on process: (Alexander, 2002-2004) First, there is the idea that structures remain transformed or that any constructive act must aim to restore the structure and/or strengthen it. The larger unit in which the project is located. This can be seen as an extension of some ideas about ecosystem sustainability to the realm of the built world, requiring first a value judgment about the health of the larger system and second a commitment to maintaining or improving that health. The idea that structures remain transformed goes against the idea of what is called "object construction" and, more broadly, the idea of "star architects as heroes." In this way, it helps to define an architect as a professional whose primary responsibility lies in the world of architecture as a whole, and not only in the specific building he designs. This is perhaps the most fundamental way in which Alexander's thought is about process rather than just form.

The form and process of transforming social roles of architects

283

Second, it is important to make design decisions against the background of reality or refer to an accurate simulation of reality, rather than making design decisions through abstraction. This is directly related to the distribution of control, because it usually means that a person cannot directly relate to the reality of all aspects of complex buildings or urban development plans. The decision-making method improves its accuracy. It is also closely related to the practice before the twelfth century. In this practice, architects are mostly active on the construction site, where the signature is often signed according to the actual reality of the building in the yard. This seems to question the concept of design as a prediction, but the main point is that if it is too far from the existing physical reality, such predictions will be more accurate. Third, the second is the importance of barriers between design and structure. This may be the hardest to accept in a profession that has been firmly established for the last 1,150 years. Alexander's view is that if design decisions must be made in the context of actual work, then the construction of a building cannot be stopped at the beginning of construction. This work is about "technology" - under any circumstances, technology is partly considered a clear, quantified system and "high style design". Alexander's experience in the UK has a strong background - mathematics and science Trinity College, who works in Newton, began his university education, but he is still an artist. The intuition and function of colors are very intuitive and play a role. Connect with the ambiguity inherent in artistic creation. His architectural theory and architectural production, as well as his innovative buildings and planning projects, are clearly aimed at making rational and intuitive thinking and coexistence. This work includes insights about clear and rational structures of the environment, and when developing these insights, scientific accuracy is needed. At the same time, he recognizes the importance of good judgment. Most importantly, the success of buildings or sites must ultimately be measured by human experience and feelings. The whole paper provides theoretical umbrellas for many different active measures around the world, all of which tries to develop alternatives that can lead to a more humane environment. This is based on three examples: before after all, the application of subdivision and building regulations is one of the rigid systems in contemporary architectural culture. Destination regulations in the American 20th century are notorious and rigid in their applications. One of its worst impacts is the separation of functional function in the city. These destinations and building codes have been changed to improve their flexibility and make certain places evaluate the possible way. The "form-based code" combines most common partition plans in possible areas, which is a framework that tries to ensure compatible buildings in the region in a regular framework. It is possible to negotiate a certain degree of negotiation between owners and municipal authorities. Therefore, the specific location and situation can play a role, not alone.

284

Davis

strict rules.The project review requires that each project is considered separately within the general design guidelines.These new forms of zoning allow human judgment within the framework of commonly understood and agreed standards, while legal zoning does it.There is a need for reason in developing these standards and discretion in their application.Second, a certain application of digital media in the design process leads to better communication and visualization.These include visualization techniques, which allow architects and its clients to be in a virtual 3D environment, which can be close to the simulation of the building that is being built;And they include converting physical models directly into drawings, as done at the Frank Gehry office, eg yes.They are also included to enable very fast calculations, based on rough initial sketches, such as the energy efficiency of a building or its price.So far, digital media technologies have been primarily used to accelerate production, and their paradigms in practice have remained mainly unchanged during the last century.New technologies help support changes in paradigm practice by changing types of information available to different actors;In many cases, they help break up obstacles between architects and clients, helping clients to easily visualize designs.Third, there are new arrangements between performers, architects and manufacturers who seek to break up excessive bureaucratic arrangements and allow a direct and useful connection between people from different companies dealing with the same aspect of construction.These initiatives may not be as exciting as you see in architectural journals today.However, all of them are associated with the building process and therefore have the potential to initiate changes in a large number of buildings and affect the quality of the environment built as a whole.From Alexander's theoretical perspective, these initiatives seek to make a designing process more transparent, connecting it to the reality of buildings and places, making it available to a wider audience and thus more capable of contributing more effectively to the renovation of the built world.I try to expand Alexander's ideas to the area of various real pragmatic initiatives that can be less important than the initiatives themselves, and the process of building buildings in the context of the way these initiatives are observed changed over the past century and a half.But one thing that Alexander's work makes is that it helps to put positive initiatives that take place in different fields - planning, design, construction management - into a common frame.This framework allows these initiatives to be understood as originating from compatible sensibilities, perhaps as a support to those who actively try to find alternatives to rooted construction systems that make up our world as it is today.and the social context of the building.The ability to achieve this dynamic response was greatly reduced in the twentieth century and was greatly replaced by an architectural approach in which the explicit quantified satisfaction was explicit

The form and process of transformation of the social roles of architects

285

Requirements become goals. Those responsible for the shape of the built environment - architects and many others in today's built culture - are now faced with the unique problem of developing a building that is sensitive to location and personal, but in such a way that it takes place within a large scale. This problem requires solutions, perhaps as Alexander suggests, recognizing that our attention must be focused on the processes by which the built world is produced, as a way of achieving good results and realizing them at scale. Such a process would not represent a nostalgic return to the past, but would use modern technology in ways that enable our buildings and cities to change.

Literatura Alexander, C., 2002–2004, The Nature of Order, Centrum voor milieustructuur, Berkeley. Bailey, M., 2003., Robert Stephenson: The Eminent Engineer, Ashgate, Aldershot en Burlington, str. 1–7, 188. Dickinson, H., 1935., James Watt: Craftsman & Engineer, Babcock & Wilcox, Cambridge, str. 17–18 (prikaz, stručni). Esherick, J., 1977, Persoonlijke communicatie. Goldthwaite, R., 1980., Renesansna arhitektura u Firenci, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, London, str. 155-170. James, J., 1982., Chartres: The Masons Who Built a Legend, Routledge i Kegan Paul, London i Boston. Johnson, P., i Hitchcock, H., 1932 [1966], International Style, Norton, New York. Rogers, I., 1838. Dagboek. Rukopis iz Avery Library of Architecture and Fine Arts, Sveučilište Columbia, New York. Silverman, E., 1939, Architectuur is en bedrijf!, Pencil Points 20 (prosinac 1939): 780-90. Vaughan, A., 1991., Isambard Kingdom Brunel: Engineering Knight-Errant, John Murray, London, p. 171. Willis, C., 1995., Form Follows Finance, Princeton Architectural Press, New York.

As a professional culture, representative and public selection of architectural displays of the actual process, Steven A. Moore and Rebecca Webber

present

This chapter examines the relationship between technologists and societies they serve.We narrowed this too wide in the way that some designer experts - in this case architects - affect the public's perception of reality.Architects must regulate reality when creating drawings representing the completed state of the construction project.If they contain all the information that decision makers must be fully informed, it will need to give its recommendations 1: 1.Therefore, representative techniques necessarily remove certain information from the image to emphasize other information that the image creator, architect, deems to be more prominent.1 This normative practice of architectural showing affects the selection of the public about urban construction.In short, even well-trained decision makers in high technology society can only choose between options that already know.Our goal is better to understand the material and political consequences of the decisions on construction rules.

2 2.1

Architecture and linear perspective Linear perspective as development tools

Initially, it is useful to take a historical perspective on this question, because the ability to project our intentions about the future depends on the tools available. Sort of, but a stick is certainly more articulate than a modern painting tool, or a computer certainly isn't. Philosophers of technology have long identified that S. a. Moore, UT R. Webber, UT 1

Leather Trolley (1998).

287

288

says Moore Webb

Each tool brings different knowledge and practices that have built-in social value. 2 Well, it's not fair to judge stick users by the standards used by computer users. Following this logic, we first argue that representational policies are situational—they depend on the social and technological context in which they are used. Many historians believe that the architectural discipline in Europe was founded on the appropriation of the linear perspective of the Arabian Peninsula in the 14th century. Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and his colleagues popularized this rendering technique more than a century later when they discovered its use. The use of linear perspective allowed master masons like Brunelleschi to imagine large projects at one time and from one point of view—that of a Renaissance merchant prince. Others argued that linear perspective would be a particularly useful tool only if the capital accumulated by the new Renaissance merchant princely class could be used to realize architectural projects in an extremely short period of time. While medieval projects were funded and built by changing generations of patrons—no one could predict the end result—the changing social and economic conditions of Renaissance life made it conceivable that a single patron could pass through archetypal favors to envision and control architectural production. An architect who learned the rules and methods of linear perspective. Therefore, it is fair to say that the existence of architecture as a separate discipline is historically linked to serving the interests of the elite through such techniques of representation. 3

2.2

Professional rise

If we are to understand that this is a period of rapid progress into the 19th century, we must first understand that the cities of contemporary free and democratic countries are in fact shaped by complex combinations that do not exist or other forms of public and private interests. During the Renaissance. However, the help of architects to imagine and the realization of their projects are still mostly elite. These architects continue to rely on the same technologies of linear perspective to do this. One of the differences between the Renaissance and the production of architecture in the 19th century is that in the middle centuries, ordinary citizens had the right to be protected by the state and avoid the influence of some of the developmental consequences sponsored by the modern business princes. For example, in the 19th century, society no longer accepted the use of flame-based materials, such as straw, which could endanger the entire city. In the United Kingdom, later in North America, utilitarian

See for example; Heidegger (1977), Winner (1977) and Feenberg (1991). There is no single explanation for the history of linear perspective, but Edgerton (1975), Panofsky (1991) and Damisch (1994). In general, this technology is not "built" or "discovered".

Professional culture, presentation and choice of public

289

The "principle of the greatest happiness" has the effect of suppressing certain individual rights, thus modifying this prescribed architectural practice in favor of the common good. By the 20th century, ordinary citizens were also given limited rights to make decisions affecting public resources through service to municipal zoning boards, historic preservation boards, and other democratic institutions. However, the presence of these institutions does not change the fact that, all things being equal, modern business princes, such as Wal-Mart executives, are financially rewarded for poor construction. Citizens, on the other hand, expect from investors quality construction, protection of their own safety and optimization of the quality of public life. Because of this fundamental conflict between development interests and the public interest, invisible in the perspective of reality created by the architects, new laws and institutions were created to protect public health, safety and welfare. Chief among these was the professional registration of architects in the United States in the late 19th century, around the same time that architecture and engineering became legally distinct disciplines. American legislators later described architects as a special class of professional citizens who have accumulated expertise, has the potential to be used to control the economic interest of development on behalf of the public in exchange for a professional license from the state, which limits professionals to a monopoly over the design of public buildings, where architects accept fiduciary responsibility for overseeing public health, safety and welfare. The result is that modern American architects are now legally and morally bound by the interests of those who entrust their services to them and the competing interests of the general public.

2.3

Loyalty competing with each other

Of course, it is difficult to serve two owners, but things are more complicated, because the words of architects should fight for autonomy like any discipline. This means that, in addition to the competing needs of customers and the public, architects also strive to get creative satisfaction and recognition from peers. These highly user-friendly needs are usually related to artistic practice and may also compete with public health, safety, and welfare. The practice of modern architects is in the Trinity of such competing values and interests. Everyone tries to achieve a certain dynamic balance in the trio, but most people choose one angle that prefers the triangle, and not the other angle. Production architects can be called those who work hard to serve customers; Star architects who serve art; The architect of the Ecological Society is a person who serves the marginal interests of society and/or the environment. Of course, these categories are renewed, that is, we must understand that some architects work hard to satisfy two, even all three interests, compete for their loyalty and several occasional successes.

290

says Moore Webb

However, this isn't so much about the loyalties or intentions of the architects as how their often divided loyalties lead them to sort of arrange alternate realities. This question shows that all architectural drawings are political because they implicitly or explicitly edit publicly available information that private decision makers can use to help them decide how to live in the future.

3 3.1

Empirical and philosophical approaches to research methods

In order to investigate the politics of photo editing in the future, we conclude that the collection and analysis of empirical data is more useful than philosophical speculation, because the question is not only what is rationally or morally desirable, but what architects actually design and what citizens actually perceive. The gap, if any, between the architect's intention and the citizen's acceptance should influence the design concept, since the size of the gap in the image's meaning reflects the image's success in achieving the goal4 In order to better understand this phenomenon, we A used a research design that limited our empirical research to one international architectural competition, the 2004 Connecticut Museum of Science and Discovery, in which computer-generated illustrations or renderings were used by competing architects. All renderings use conventional rendering techniques, including linear perspective. This strategy ensures that representations are constructed for the same design problem and are constrained to similar graphic formats. We have selected nine images from the competition material, each representing three of the three finalists - Cesar Pelli in New York, Zaha Hadid in London and Behnisch & Behnisch in Stuttgart.

3.2

intention

The next step required in design research is to evaluate the professional literature of architects and documented statements that represent both the specific designs of designers and the general claims of architectural critics. All this represents the intention of the architect.

4 The gap between the artist's intention and the public reception was studied by those who deal with the theory of the reception, which was created at the University of Constance.See Holub (1984).

Professional culture, presentation and choice of public

3.3

291

reception

Then we randomly select students from the University of Texas to classify paintings, but they excluded them in art and design disciplines.As emerging experts, we have created representative samples of a larger institution that we hope will not judge.Instead, training is to train the main citizen for this. We choose students instead of any patterns of ordinary people, because we think that they are the berries of future decisions as citizens who have been educated. What is our pattern is sensitive to the class rather than random.A research plan that sociologists call "free classification".In this plan, the respondents sorted their visual images. The residents completed classification exercises in every pile or category. We asked them if the general comments were recorded and then explained by the content of the content analysis.In our first type, we found that we asked the wrong question. In the second series, we determined, determined, confirmed and confirmed.With the help of colleagues, the Directsort solution we use is tortured by circulating logical means.

4 4.1

Intent and receipt of data

In each set of viewpoints studied, we found that more than half of the respondents' explanations were logically consistent and could collectively be called the dominant explanation or acceptance. Most respondents grouped the nine displays into three groups by architect, presumably because they could recognize consistency in the graphical style in which the information was presented. Among all respondents, almost the same number strongly like or dislike abstract representation (Hadid) and traditional

5 The same images were used in the first two classifications procedures, but in accordance with the approach to the directed task of classification, respondents were divided into three categories in the form of short descriptive sentences based on our analysis of architects of intent and nine images should be classified into these categories.The descriptive sentences used in the first and second passage have changed, but the directed ranking process has remained the same.

292

Sa moore Japanese R. webber

Emission .Nut, no respondent has voluntarily announced the perspective or disgust of the perspective (Behnic), which can reflect their openness. Song (less than half) other respondents use different images classification, but significant significant significant importance of these others orThird protocols in statistics. Gloud interpretation of attitudes described is our language characterized by traditional (pelli), abstract and behnizam. We disclosed that these categories are directly related to well-known major, and / or academic discourse.

4.2

Conventional view

(Video) 5 amazing websites to download books for FREE!

Cesar Pelli thought that the design of his table would be contextual, meaning that the design of the proposed building tries to consciously fit into the existing built environment. 6 refers to earlier drafts drawn by Pelli, e.g. it was said to avoid superficial stylistic references, but to build "buildings that would be new additions to [the city's] family". Architecture critics often refer to Paley's work as "self-rule" and "right," as he describes himself. Ways of presenting reality. They did this by placing observation points at pedestrian eye level and by making the proposed new building a backdrop to normal street scenes of normal people and their normal cars and normal cars going to and from the museum. Usual activities in Hartford. All in all, this set of points of view is interpreted by architectural critics and authors as "the building suits everyone". Interpreting Pelli's ideas, most respondents saw a world that seemed colorful, cheerful, realistic, whole and familiar. From their memories, they associated the features of the series with the commercial shopping centers they experienced in their daily lives. Therefore, the main explanation for Perry's design can be considered routine, meaning that respondents were not challenged by the design or lifestyle. Respondents preferred to perceive the design as an attractive example of their building typology. Architects' intention to design contextual buildings and how respondents perceive it routinely agree (see Figure 1).

Contextualism in North American architecture is associated with the historic preservation movement that began in the 1960s and 1970s. The continuity of the style with the immediate urban environment is often highlighted. 7 Boles (1989, 73).

Professional culture, presentation and choice of public

293

Air Air Air Base 1 Science Museum Connectig and explore CEasear Pelli & Associate Architects gate (Met Dank Aan Pelli & Associates)

4.3

abstract representation

The designs proposed by Zaha Hadid are aimed at abstracting in a way that is in accordance with the critical aesthetic theory.This design is critical because he asks the viewer to suspend his knowledge of reality to explore other options.Perhaps the best definition of a critical national team comes from Theodore Adorna, who claims that art becomes knowledge.Art should not speak directly about the nature of reality, nor should it be represented or mimicked in any way.(Adorno, 1983)

294

Mooreberg said

In line with Adorno, Hadid stated that her design intentions "...always challenge typologies...how you think about museum spaces, terminals, even parking lots" (2005). Karen Stein, who served on the Pritzker Prize jury, said of Hadid that she "...built a career that challenged convention—conventional notions of architectural space, practice, representation, and construction" (2004). From our professional perspective, the renderings of Hadid's office appear to abstract or detach from the normative experience of the city. The displays defy understanding of scale, as there is often no one there, and when they are, they are only silhouettes. These displays are foreign to us, in part because they use aggressive diorama images that no one could make without a helicopter at their disposal. Taken together, this range of perspectives leads us to reassess our urban condition in a way that would undoubtedly have appealed to Adorno. When reading Zaha Hadid's portrait, most respondents saw a world that seemed dreary, foreign and non-linear. The design drew strong reactions from both ends of the spectrum - some thought the design was "ugly", others thought it was "cool". Respondents empirically associated this set of characteristics with [modern] art. The dominant interpretation of Hadid's designs could be called abstract, meaning that the respondents found the designs and lifestyles depicted there to be foreign and challenging. Likewise, architects' intentions in designing key buildings are closely related to the way respondents see them as abstract buildings (see Figure 2).

As shown in the picture.2 Museum of Science and Discovery Zaha Hadid Architects' Connecticut (Kindness Zaha Hadid Architects)

Professional culture, presentation and choice of public

4.4

295

Explanation of view

Educating policy makers so that they can make informed decisions is a pragmatist intention. This observation does not mean that Benisch consciously took American pragmatism as the philosophical basis of design, but only that their attitude towards the design process is consistent with that of Dewey, Rorty and others. For example, Dewey often argued that the role of experts in society is not to make choices for citizens, but to teach them to make decisions for themselves. 8 The logic behind his argument is that citizens in a democratic society must have technological knowledge in order to make rational decisions. And the choice of how they should live, not submit to technocratic rule from above or mass tastes bubbling from below. In keeping with Dewey's logic, Behnisch's website tells visitors, "Our vision is to join forces [with the client and the city] to create a shared architectural vision," rather than imposing a personal vision. Educator and theorist Tom Dutton confirms this statement of personal intention when he describes Behnisch's corporate intention as an attempt to "...change... meaning through the arrangement of plan, form and content" and by problem solving. client. 9 From the author's professional perspective, the Behnisch bureau's digital renderings seem to offer more possible explanations than fixed solutions. These perspectives differ from traditional (Pelli) or critical (Hadid) perspectives in that they are pedagogical, meaning they explain to decision makers how buildings solve problems spatially and technically. Text, photographs and diagrams were used liberally, suggesting that the architects felt that the decision makers were able and willing to invest the time and effort in reading alternative options, rather than quickly consuming the graphics as fait accompli. This means that policymakers are seen as intelligent citizens, not impatient consumers. Taken together, this set of perspectives offers as many solutions as there are problems to consider. When interpreting Behnisch's depictions, most respondents saw a world that appeared schematic or incomplete, but highly technical and detailed. Some people find it difficult to interpret these images as traditional renderings, since there is so much text and technical information involved. Empirically, they link this set of characteristics to planning at earlier stages. The dominant interpretations of Behnisch's designs could be called interpretive, meaning that the subjects considered the designs and lifestyles described there to be educational, preliminary, and inclusive, since many still had to be made based on the various types of information presented by choice. 10 8

Dewey (1954).Dutton (1996, 154).10 Canizaro (2000).Vincent Canizaro recorded the existence of three architectural models of drawings in his drawing site - Multimedia and Multidisciplinary Discipline. These are the last types, multi -discipline and graphic information in the traditional sense.that this communication model is the most successful in the development of "multiple" understanding of the local area because it tends to promote public conversations.9

296

SA Moore i R. Webber

The architects of the intention to create a "common vision" agrees well with the perception of the respondents that the views are interpretive for the third time.In short, we can say that there was a smallest gap in Hartford competition in the intention of design and received meaning (see Figure 3).

As shown in Fig.3 Edited by Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner and the Museum of Science and Research (provided by Behnisch, Behnisch & Partner)

Professional culture, presentation and choice of public

5 5.1

297

The consequences of outline the outline is not a construction

This finding suggests that the architect's point of view is a very effective means of communication – respondents tend to see what the architect wants them to see. However, the problem with this finding is that while there is a small gap between design intent and display acceptance, we don't yet know how big the gap might be between graphical representations and the built world itself. ... Imagining how we want to live and actually understanding that world are two different things. This observation requires us to consider the possible consequences of each type of expression on the social and material processes of architecture before assessing how successful these types of expression are in catalyzing future material realities.

5.2

the consequences of the contract

The traditional perspective (Pelli) shows the mostly happy world with which the decision makers are familiar. In our opinion, this strategy has great benefits for the developers (the Board of Directors of the museum in this example), because it minimizes development resistance by covering certain conditions and consequences of the building, reducing to that maximum reduction mode. Economic risk. For example, the technical means and its environmental/social impact did not appear in the images. The observer must assume that other experts will solve such problems or are not architectural experts. Out of sight from the mind. The other two views did not manipulate reality so seriously, but as we shall see, Benispo's point of view illustrates the technical means of designing designs to regulate reality. Traditional views provide only visual or programmatic choices for non-expert decision makers and need not take too many risks or use too much vision. In the world described by Perry, more or less life can continue as before, but in a more comfortable space. The main advantage of this strategy is that it won the competition. However, the disadvantage is that the participants did not see or take the opportunity to reintegrate the institutional agreement that bound them and implemented these protocols in a way that can continue to open up a new way of life.

5.3

abstract consequences

Critical Display (Hadid) sets the world in the opposite of a conventional world - one that takes off allusions to known to discover sometimes scary and

298

says Moore Webb

Sublime conditions for urban life. This cunning strategy increases resistance to development, because it asks people to accept a new way of life, not on the basis of their own experience, but on the cultural and technical authority of the architect. Decision makers must be willing to accept the risk that architect-artists actually represent their realization so that their needs and desires can be met; not. The strategy is a proposal that is very risky and highly profitable for both architects and institutions. For the architect, as in the case of Hartford, there is a risk of being completely rejected. If Hadid had managed to lure the museum as a "patron", she would have had a more or less free hand in creating her own masterpiece. Accepting the advantages of museums and cities, accepting the role of art patrons, can get an extraordinary building, like Frank Gehry's Bilbao Museum, will attract a large number of new visitors to the Museum. Before moving on to the third type of monitor, we must note that the first and second types - traditional and key - are a dialectical pair. Our observation is that both Pelli and Hadid architects, with different resources, achieve the same goal of quickly gaining recognition and continuing construction. While Paley appealed to colorful pop tastes, Hadid appealed to darker, more abstract or elitist tastes. If their sources of authority differ, both architects rely on their own views to satisfy the aesthetic desires of their clients, interrupt the public dialogue and thereby avoid what has been removed from the picture. This is the result of sequential slowing and suppression but construction.

5.4

Consequences of interpretation

Unlike traditional and critical views, what describes the point of view is more like an open process, not artificial products. Pelli and hadid have idealized the environment of a place through the programming technology of showing, while Behnisch put its architectural solution in a messy photo environment.Emnisch resorts to intelligenceIn places where Pelli and Hadid are trying to mobilize populism or elite taste. Behnisch illustrations have not tried to end the dialog with a satisfactory aesthetic desire, but tried to start a new dialogue on the subject that the decision makers were not familiar.traditional drawing.However, for each particular element shown, some elements in the composition will promote the decision makers to consider alternative opportunities or explain the unconventional technology Essence that Benispovo's view is different from the hadids of the photographs.responsibility for the non -visual consequences of the building. If there is a risk of decisions that relate to this design, it is impossible to buy a world that is described as such. It takes them, it requires their time, their cultural literacy and participation in public lectures.

Professional culture, representative and public choice

299

Simply because the respondents in our study claimed to understand how architectural knowledge can contribute to problem solving. It depends on hiding the consequences of non-professional decision-makers defeating commissions or aesthetic control Engaging decision-makers in the conversation about how the building itself enables the interests of the institution to achieve that sense of citizenship in public space and local history Ramps that bring interpretation citizens may have changed the perception of respondents and blamed them for creating what they purported to be an alternate reality. By accepting responsibility for technological and visual choices, these citizens may have learned that multiple forms of intellectual outcomes can be satisfying outcomes;11 they have not. Benjamin Barber describes the nature of this "open conversation", which is catalyzed by this performance, because it is not about describing the world, but about "making the world and remaking the world" (1984). The point is that multiple and opposing viewpoints presented through public lectures help all parties, proponents and opponents alike, somehow understand the consequences of construction. This emphasis on the design process rather than artefacts indicates a change in the way the public talks about architecture, meaning that buildings are constructed with insights gained from different perspectives. This logic should not imply that the architect is nothing more than an amalgamation of the attributive desires of the participants. On the contrary, Behnisch-Company has clearly demonstrated its skill in designing an open dialogue that leads to deeper aesthetic and political satisfaction precisely because they are shared by passive consumers, but an actively engaged community of authors, among architects and architects. there is only one author, not he/she. Be likable and a "valuable stranger". 12

6 6.1

The conclusion represents the policy

The question is who determines how we live together and how to get along with nature. Professional designers certainly have valuable aesthetic and technical knowledge and understand the relative consequences of one way compared to another way. However, professional knowledge is general or abstract, and it is not possible to fully understand the way citizens want to live in a certain place. But it is precisely because professional knowledge is abstract that it can see and transcend the status quo. Therefore, we believe that a "good" performance is not only a manifestation of aesthetic desire 11 Latour (1986) uses the expression "pictorial alliance of alliances" to describe how many different perspectives, real and society, helping to expand the meaning.12 Harding (1991).

300

says Moore Webb

Consumers, but can also teach citizens how buildings will be built when questions are resolved by agencies and community.In conclusion, we state that citizens will continue to rely on the formulas of technologists or private visions of the artist, unless they acquire social intelligence by constantly testing their imagination.Therefore, I do not want to claim that technology and art are suspicious practice.It is not even a proposal for populism to be replaced by elitism.Instead, we want to argue a double claim: first, technology and art are human practices that can open unexpected ways of life.But secondly, not all life styles are desirable.The right role of experts in the Democratic Society is to, together with their fellow citizens, what is necessary, not what is technically possible, economically profitable or aesthetic irritating.For this purpose, we admit that some tools are better than others.This discovery shows that a linear perspective technique has undoubtedly become a valuable tool, but after 400 years of use, we have to admit that it hides as much as it reveals.New visualization tools are needed to help communities like Hartford to understand the innocent consequences of their choices.Fortunately, this new tool is already in making.

Literature Adorno, T., 1983, Theory of Aesthetics, Routledge and K. Paul, Boston.Barber, B., 1984, strong democracy: participatory policy for the new Era, University of California Press, Berkeley, ca.Behnisch, BP, 2005, Our Practice, June 2005, http://www.behnisch.com/our_practice/our_practice.html Patient, D., 1989 :: 73. Canizaro, V., 2000, painting location: Research on the architectural media and their relationship with Texas A&M University's Place, University Station, Texas, Doctor of Philosophy.Damic, H., 1994, origin of perspective, myth press, Cambridge, Mon.Dewey, J., 1954, viewer and his problems, Swallow Press, Chicago.Dutton, T., 1996, Rebuilding Architecture: Critical Discourse and Social Practice, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN.Edgerton, S., 1975, a linear view of the rediscovered Renaissance, Essential Books, New York.Feenberg, A., 1991, critical theory of technology, Oxford University Press, New York.Hadid, Z. in June 2005 http://www.pritzkerprize.com/2004/mediakit.htm Harding, S., S., 1991, whose science is it?Whose knowledge?Thinking from women's lives, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, Ny.Heidegger, M., 1977, problems with technical and other documents, and presented by William Levitt, Harper & Row, New York.Holub, R., 1984 Reception Theory: Critical Introduction, Methuen, New York.Latour, B., 1986, visualization and cognition: thinking with eyes and hands, knowledge.Soc.6: 1-40.Leatherbarrow, D., 1998, Showing Other Hide: On Architectural Representation, Harvard Design Magazine, Cambridge, Ma, Autumn, 50-55.Panofsky, E., 1991, perspective as a symbolic form, Essential Books, New York.Stein, R., 2004, June 2005, http://www.pritzkerprize.com/2004/mediakit.htm Winner, L., 1977, autonomous technology: technique outside control as a topic of political encounter, in politics, topicsIn politics, myth press, cambridge, ma.

Various design functions and intentions by Ted Cavanagh

Design describes different intellectual activities between disciplines. This chapter advocates engineering, architecture or other types of design before any general conceptualization. The "double artificial artificial products" involves the engineering design.North American residential architecture is a technological cutting system in the 19th century.It's a good example.It is shared with technical artificial products, while the other technology and function of sharing social artificial products.Analis of the development frame was proposed by Andrew Feenberg, which in turn explains the generalization of design in technical philosophy.It has been partially solved. It has a good time, but it has a number of conditions, tendencies and preceding. Basha, as the construction system designed in the 19th century, brought outdated designs in modern houses, technical insights that have been resolved by engineering in the last two centuries have been these concept functions, the use and intentions and prohibition of these concepts in the 21st century.Intention and intention of the version.

Design, operation and use of philosophy

To expand the philosophical study of technology out of technical design, the authors suggest philosophical redefinition of terms such as function, use and intent.Critics suggested that authors of empirical studies of antiques, Peter Kroes and Anthonie Meijers, expands their project "tools acquired non technical design" (Kroes and Meijers, 2002; Mitchham, 2002), 2002A), 2002a).Of course, since engineers choose how to design, it also applies to the resulting philosophical definition

T. Cavanagh University, Clemson and Dar Hamxi

301

302

T Kavanagh

More specifically.Expanding these definitions to other domains of design increases the variability, but enables the wider application of the philosophical term.Instead of adjusting to the definition of artifacts made by artists, this chapter has a more modest approach and expands the concept to include artifacts that are closely related to engineering design, especially architecture.Construction technology and construction have an incorrect understanding of function, use and intentions, partly because artifacts are complex, and designers face a loose problem that is not easy to quantify (Kira, 1976; Rykwert, 1982).There are several possible technical solutions to build a shelter;Decisions of lightness, speed, efficiency, climate and materials create a complex set of criteria, some of which are contradictory.In our home culture, there are functional improvements that are easy to use.Try to evaluate "home improvement";Find out which house is better than the other.What do you measure, how new and improved the new house.Can homes lead to better personal and social well -being?If so, how will changes in construction technology affect the spaces around us?Although the size of the house is easy to understand, the artifacts are socially and technologically complex, and analyzing the intention of design, architectural function and extreme use is often very difficult.During the 20th century, engineers and architects designed new housing systems, producing innovation for the production of "built" homes, but they represented only a small part of the total residential construction (Wachsmann, 1961).The parameters and methods of engineering design failed to solve this seemingly simple task.Methods for building a home or design for the construction of a home cannot be easily adapted to more limited parameters of engineering design, as the results must provide a wide range of equivalent solutions, qualitative concepts and design intentions (Hansson, 2002b).Therefore, the design path of the design has many possible directions and a wide range of possible solutions.However, when this variability is taken into account in the philosophical concepts of function, use and intention, it can be discussed in the design area that is approaching the engineering.It also promises to be a version of the 21st century design, which includes technical and technical aspects of artifacts masked by engineering.

1.1

Functions and functions

In this chapter, the function is added to the function, the usability is added to use, and intention is added.Engineers and most 20th century technologies have shown that the problematic function is an effective way of working.The problem solves an efficient reduction in function definition.The wider consequences are unintentional and unimaginable.This chapter advocates the discussion of features instead of expanding the definition of features.The function opens a function to a social context.It is intended for various use and appropriation.It is intended to be built, but open.Not only designed for functionality, but is designed for functionality that encourages creativity

Various designs

303

Artifacts can respond to many different technological and social situations.This will happen anyway;The design changes in the post-industrial age.Kroes (2001) describes the "Dual Nature of Technology Artifacts" as a physical and intentional.They expanded the philosophical study of technological artifacts to their technological-social aspects.In accordance with its pronounced intent to explore the functions, Kroes and Meijers (2002B) explicitly refuse to explore "thin concepts", that is, concepts that have reliable relationships between the inputs and outputs.In their opinion, a deep understanding of the function would cover some of the deeper issues of intent that are important for engineering design;Transfer of their concepts to nearby areas of design such as architecture and construction science.This chapter outlines some of the deeper implications of intent to be analyzed by looking outside the engineering design.In other words, in this chapter, I advocate a deeper understanding of functionality.From the point of view of this designer, describing artifacts as technology and technology companies is an important step towards giving the function of human creations.1 While designers, especially engineers, arts permeate the function;Designers can also design functions for their products.In architectural terms, one is called a solution to "tight adhesion", and the second solution "loose adhesion".Simple engineering, such as the design of the first jet engine, is an example of "tight fit".The case system in case study is an example of a loose docking technique.This difference separates engineering from other areas of design, and the emphasis on engineering in the philosophy of technology has led to merging the function and function.In order to show its bias, I think every emphasis on engineering in philosophy of technology strives for instrumental and essential arguments.This puts engineering on a weak and strong end of the function.As an architect-designer, it is easier for me to represent ambiguous artifacts as intentionally ambiguous, instead of simply assuming that others cannot predict.Note that this is not multiple facility achievement, these are the objects that lead multifunctionalities.Planned design but accidental function, such as a hammer used as a doorbell.Andrew Feenberg (1999) discusses the historical discovery of functions during technological development.Architects are, on the contrary, historically aware designers that strive for vague functions.Wooden construction systems are the version of the 19th century technology that, such as computers, surrounds us.Both combine trends towards homogenization with new possibilities of appropriation, as in Borgmann's computer as homogeneous technological artifacts and Feenberg's (2002) democratic design computers for things like a long distance learning.Moreover, part of the postmodern state of contemporary design assumes multiple appropriations, in other words, many contemporary artifacts are designed for the function.

However, in the Croos Argument and in his critique Searle (Kroes, 2003), the function still attaches instrumental, and perhaps essentialist (Feenberg, 1999) importance.

304

1.2

T Kavanagh

Use and usability

Tom Moran (2002) believes that the availability of the intention is designed. Software proves the difference between the use of jobs and its availability. The design intent differs from technical relics of engineering technology.It is open.It is open for manipulation, manipulation, redesign and under -disidanje.Other words, there is a designer field between production and consumption.In this area of design, a successful design is measured by elasticity and practicality, and the economy is more complex than simple technological production. There is also the use and availability of functions and functions (Cowan, 1985).

1.3

intention and purpose

As I question the distinctions made in philosophical inquiry by introducing the dual aspect of design intent, function and functionality, and suggest that even users are designers to some extent; I suggest that the terminology in question could encompass the term functional Designed with a contemporary postmodern attitude and usability. This suggests a thick notion of intent. Of course, this does not mean that design can predict all unintended consequences, but it can accelerate the realm of secondary design to address those consequences. Since usability and functionality imply a more gradual distinction between design and use, suggesting that the mediator can be both designer and user, design intent can be subjectively diverse and emerge from different designs. Furthermore, "intentional" in its strongest sense connects a group of unrelated designers working on the design of the same artifact (house) or practice (house building method). They can cooperate or compete, but each designer is aware of the progress of the joint project. A designer is typically "a group of agents sharing the same ontology ... able to interact across discourse domains without necessarily acting according to a globally shared theory [and] with observable behavior according to definitions in the ontology" (Gruber, 1993) ) Conversely intentions, intentional design explains how different companies design the same type of product and explains many indigenous traditions. Another, more focused possibility of "collective intentions" could be the basis of design. The radical technical revision of North American wood building practices is collectively conceived as an accumulation or assimilation of many different cultural practices created under the catalytic and homogenizing influence of new technologies in construction and wood production. This is perhaps an extreme example of technological social design. This definition of collective intention actually echoes debates in the philosophy of technology. I propose that use and availability be the subject of the following discussion and explain the ambiguities identified. According to Kroes (2003), there is

various designs

305

Ambiguities inherent in Searle's analysis of causal assignments of substitute functions between collective intentionality and intrinsic property effects. In one line of thought...causal functions are assigned and...a form of (collective) intentionality is involved. In the second argument, he emphasizes that objects with causal functions can perform their functions only by virtue of their intrinsic properties.

The concept of "collective intent" of the designed end of production (reference only to the end of consumption) involves living sharing as a community or loose relationship can meet the minimum language domain. The wooden structure is one of the aspects of a building that considers practical technology.It shows that loose technology provides an important border condition between engineering and social articles for discussion on practical customs and technologies that culture is influenced, the design intention is the clearest in the project.arhite technology and architectural technology expandsare the expected design that can be shown collective and sample designs include the functions and functions of production, embezzlement and consumption, as well as the use of consumers. All this may be in opposition to the views of the establishment of a double-made product (2001):... ... Physical description is not yet (hidden) contain functional descriptions and vice versa ....... This logical independence raises the question, ie how engineer in design practice brings the design description (design process) and constructive description (exitDesignation process) given in the design between the gap.) ..

However, this focus on engineering will not respond to the overall design - entering and out of the design process are slightly different among the disciplines of design.Many philosophers postulate at least and posteriors of input and output connections.Artifacts from other areas of design show significant resistance to "functional descriptions of objects", ie the entries are not clear, and the "passing of the gap" is not a suitable metaphor to connect the input and output.Many design processes do not fit into this too clear and simple picture.So, identify them as generalizations of engineering design, okay;But do not identify them as generalizations for all designs.

1.4 Opposition to the selective affinity of technological development Empiricism. Starting from the balance of technology and technology and the dual properties of artificial products and the dual properties of physical and purposeful, this is a chapter in production, occupation and consumption, functions and functions, functions, functions and functions, functions and functions, functions and functions, functions and functions. The difference dissolves the designer and usability and commented on the discussion of intention. It is based on the experience of architectural learning. This field has overall design methods, including technology and social parameters. Although architectural design

306

T Kavanagh

It is difficult to define, because one method tends to become multiple rather than unit cost like engineering design. Andrew Feenberg (1999) reminds us that technical research often falls victim to the thinking of the spirit: from an abstract perspective, technology has a selective tendency and evidence, but that is precisely because every element of anti-corporeal nature is from history from from history from history History. When the essence of extracting its essence remains ... the provisions shared by various technical practices are not the essence of history, but only an abstraction for history. During various stages of development, including modern technological stages, various historical specific technical essences.

Historians agree. Historians almost always find the development path uneven, full of divergent and parallel directions. It is not always clear why certain technologies are preferred and why some paths are not followed. The reasons are both social and technical. In other words, the recent historian of technology rejects his own positivist version that anthropomorphizes the invention as the inventor. Henry Ford absorbed a number of historical technological improvements, from interchangeable parts to assembly lines, all of which were necessary for mass production (Hounshell, 1984). If, as Feenberg argues, philosophers have been slow to emphasize reflexivity, historians may have been quicker. For the historian, however, there is the opposite problem: the value of the summary has been obliterated, and the search for overarching principles of development has been abandoned. The path of technological development can be evolutionary in a sense (Brey, this section), or follow a form of periodic equilibrium, as in Thomas Kuhn's (1970) model of revolution. The trajectories of the cases under study indicate an entirely different pattern of development, one that generally applies. It is also a biological analogy, translated for use in anthropology. Brian Stross (1999) discusses the use and translatability of mixed metaphors. It helps explain the log building system that developed on the North American frontier in the 19th century and its current dominance in house construction (see Figure 1). Evolutionary models and eureka moments, which manifest in inventors, have a "selective affinity for positivism" in the assumption of technological progress, and even Kuhn's model of revolution assumes that progress is intermittent. Each emphasizes a central line of practice, failing to document the quantity or quality of deviations and missing practices. In contrast, a mixture of different stages of development simulates the history of many technological artifacts.

2 CASE STUDY: COMMISSIONING A HOME BUILDING SYSTEM Today, almost 90% of homes in North America are built using the wood construction method (see Figure 2). Now it is perhaps the dominant practice in the world, replacing the local method of building with wood in rich areas

Various designs

307 homogeneity

Diversified portfolio

Refine

horizontal log

SCORED FORAMWORK BALOON OFRAM SHANTY HOUSE

Light wooden frame

The posts on any platform frame are placed on the ground

Combination -s other practice?

As shown in the picture. 1 A hybrid cycle suitable for the development of balloon frame construction systems

As shown in Figure 2, she added a frame wall of a balloon frame.1941. ).).

308

T Kavanagh

Wooden construction practices like Japan and Norway.The method is associated with a unique type of wood, the main North American export product.It remained virtually unchanged for centuries and a half, suggesting that it is a unique qualified solution that shows resistance and resistance in times of major technological changes - it is like that it has a poor sense of functionality, and in both shows reliability of connections between entrances and outputs.The key challenges of this technology over time resulted in gradual adjustment, reducing functionality in favor of functionality, organizing its usability into some specific range of use and its flexible description from multiple overlapping traditions.The transfer of the practice of collective intentions to ambiguous intentions supports the huge technological systems.Thomas Hughes (1989) claimed that artifacts were socially flexible when industries were young but resistant to social influence when they matured.This description is valid for the history of a wooden house.Light wooden structures in North America have shown a democracy of design early;Each individual was an agent who made it easier for a collective intent for innovation.Today, it tolerates local variations and limited allocations, while binding builders or consumers for a huge production technology system.The system includes everything, from the unintentional use of the plantations used by non -autochthons of species to normalized experience of uniform ceilings in the home.The housing system, which through its development combined three dimensions of design, production, appropriation and consumption, is currently embedded in a large technological framework that integrates all aspects of production and consumption.As a kind of wooden balsa frame, the balloon frame has shown a completely different tendency at an early stage of development.It is part of the assimilative design process that combines various revolutionary architectural practices in countless ways.Often the first meetings between cultures create a dynamic environment.Construction guides are focused on borders, explaining these new methods to immigrants and emphasizes convenience, practicality and efficiency.Technically codexes are gradually standardized and codified.These early variants tested their performance according to the most modern non -nationalist criteria;The limit with the construction of 827,000 new homes between 1830 and 1850 and the connected redistribution of natural resources unprecedented in history.It is an equivalent of a rapid production of 19th century prototypes.

2.1

Feinberg's theory of instrumentalization

Feenberg's primary and secondary instrumental analysis tools can identify specific properties and/or effects of construction systems in their historical and contemporary forms.Feenberg (1999) describes primary instrumentalization as aspects of a universal nature common to all technologies;"... a historical concept

various designs

309

It combines the essence of philosophical and social scientific perspectives. "These tendencies remove users from the living world. Secondary instrumentation reinserts these abstract technologies into interpersonal systems, reconstructing worldviews based on or influenced by technology. Designers are representatives of these reconnection tendencies; they are often described as social construction. In this case, it is necessary to create the discontinuity between the time before and after its implementation; this becomes the basis for the analysis of any technology. It is necessary to distinguish between two phases of technological development: where most of the design and social construction takes place) and the established phase of the design (when the design can no longer be tolerated). In most category of analysis, the artifact behaves the same way when it accepts the changing influence of design as it does when it is found as a large work differently when the fixed parts of production and consumption are systems.Since secondary instrumentalization introduces social aspects, time-based effects are significant, but they replace , rather than removing features. For example, in the case study, the Sada initiative is more limited in the construction system (although the technology allows for individual and regional variations), but overall a greater potential for the initiative. The technology is simpler and requires less experience, making more people potential Builders. One approach might be to plot the relative strength of different aspects of the instrumentation for each period. However, this is not always obvious. In this way, the initiative is maintained throughout all periods, since construction methods are never specified in the contract or prescribed. In some ways it decreases, while in others it increases. Cultural and other frameworks for non-quantifiable analyzes are loose descriptions at best. They can help us discover and resolve aspects of inherent bias in descriptions and expose specific technologies that are overshadowed by the mundanity of everyday life. Mixed metaphors and instrumentalized frames are models of abstraction and generalization that correspond to worldviews. This seems particularly applicable to design, as Feenberg says: “Design internalizes social constraints and condenses technology and social relations. "The boundary between technology and the social or cultural world is porous, making definition and analysis elusive. Good design refuses to attribute any neutrality to technology or to see it as a simple tool, aid or means to an end.

2.2

Instrumentation of wooden frames

Interestingly, Feenberg (1999) uses houses and architecture as an example to illustrate "meaningful engineering artefacts" - a field of multi-production philosophical analysis. on wooden boards. It was found for its practicality, not because there were as many species as the environment and as usual as usual. Connect."

310

T Kavanagh

The history of wooden construction in North America can be understood in three stages.Phases are identified according to wood products: logs, boards and materials.Wood is the result of a simple linear squeeze out of a sawmill, including certain parameters such as transport to mills, forest management, trees breeding and land buying.Each parameter enhances the tendency of the other to regulate the practice.The construction method of the building is designed according to the Factory Factory.Currently, wooden structures in North America determine the properties of wood, where they determine the North American production of wood that creates an integrated production and consumption system.The following short descriptions are grouped by certain aspects of the construction of a wooden frame into eight instrumental categories.Each category is part of the vapor, primary and secondary instrumentalization, where Feenberg's keywords are printed italized, and each category in a row A, B and C represents the degree of technology development;'A' before the introduction, the 18th century, 'B' is a phase of work design, mostly the second half of the mid -19th century, and 'C' is a design phase from the 19th century to the present.Phases are: a) The selected material is the whole tree, round or square wood, b) the selected material are usually boards or dimensional blocks is just one size uniform, c) The selected material is a wood standardized dimension and properties and plywood.

2.2.1

Wood production: unstructured and systematic

The trees first come from the construction site, then from the regional ecosystem and finally from all over the world, which contributes to de-ecologization. In this process, the degree of systematization increased, and the trees were organized into hierarchical classifications to take into account individual, regional and species differences. Distribution expanded. a) trees selected by the carpenter from the construction site or near the construction site, the wood is a product of a local trader, b) the tree is upstream, the wood is a product of a local sawmill and is sold locally or downstream, c) the tree is at the source Turned into wood, the wood is a product of lumber mills across the country and sold in a national network of lumber yards. The bar has been raised. ) Grade B lumber is established between dealers and suppliers, c) National grade lumber is used and exported to North American Standards International.

2.2.2

Wood production: Reductionism and mediation

Forest land has been reduced to a commodity. Originally, forests were a necessary part of agriculture for its own needs, after which they were stripped of their exchange value, new agricultural land was created, and trees are now grown as crops. This direction of exploitation is mediated. In the beginning, trees signified the fertility of the land, then they were valued as a national resource, and now they are the subject of international research.

Various designs

311

Forest land has become a product.a) Forest land is held by farmers and is used for heating and construction of demand;The consumption of wood gradually exceeds the local supply, b) the wood is traded and contributes to the market value of its land for growth;However, excessive agriculture uses the liquidation of forests in economics crops and forests are replaced by more favorable crops or planting and forest management to maximize the number of wooden forests using imported trees.which grow on it.C) The forest management certification and land practice allows consumers to choose materials in accordance with the environment and moral value.

2.2.3

Wooden construction: Automation and occupation

The discussion now shifts from lumber production, automation, and occupations to the field of house building—changes in the jobs of builders' skills multiply and simplify construction connections and changes in the occupations and organizations of those builders. Join the work of the displaced. a) the logs are shaped by hand, sometimes only when necessary, and machined straight and at the right angle for the carpenter, each joint is custom made to match the dimensions of the wood and the geometry of the joint, b) the shaping of the woodwork to order becomes Repeatedly similar joints of low quality and skill, mortise and tenon templates and machines for making standardized joints, c) butt joints with wooden nails became standard, simpler and repeatable, requiring less skill. Enter a list of transactions. a) house owners build themselves or hire local or traveling carpenters, which is a long-term process, b) carpentry is dying out; new framing crafts are established, and numerous publications explain the techniques and possibilities to the public, c) new on-site Organization has increased the speed of framing and the use of framing teams; tools were cheap, precision was easy to achieve, and framing was easy to learn.

2.2.4

Wooden structures: focus and activity

North American wood frame is a traditional or common construction system that can be precisely described and defined in legal documents or engineering calculations. However, builders and homeowners are held back by the entire system of production and consumption. Builders operating in an integrated system of production and consumption use its flexibility to position themselves for a competitive advantage. Architecture is doomed. a) the construction contract, if used, refers to floor plans, nearby houses or appearance; no size or contract limits,

312

T Kavanagh

Cladding and plaster finishes to suit all sizes, some shops specialize in parts such as windows and supply the local trade, b) many houses are built to specifications from mail order schemes and frame reference balloons; four leg modules can be made of nationally standardized panel lengths c) No construction method drawings, drawings showing the overall shape of the house and any agreed exceptions; a 6-inch clearance is required for panels such as plywood and drywall, and many building components such as rafters, all assembled components upon delivery; building systems are the backbone of modern plumbing, electrical and insulation systems. Easier to build support initiatives. a) European construction practices adapted to North American conditions, b) simple installation by homeowners and helpers, building systems can easily cover different property styles, c) well-known construction methods for easy renovation and repairs for homeowners supported by an extensive delivery network. (Do-it-yourself is an industry.)

2.2.5

Standardization trends in production systems

If the experience of a guiding experience has passed, the stability of the technological system of wood production will face new challenges.The power of North American trade prevails when local differences lead to deviation or suggest new values for international standards of wood production.A combination of seemingly opposed forces is in favor of her.For example, international trade and certification of green construction promote standards that favor global standardization than local and various practices (Cavanagh and Kroeker, 2005).Several examples throughout the history of development show this trend of integration.If the problems of construction or wood production were solved, a more integrated production and consumption system would occur.Because the tree is natural, its inner properties vary depending on the history of its growth.Moisture can cause dimensions.Relatively stable while growing or "healing", it is collected during hardening.There will be contraction and in the production of wood materials and in construction.Variations in moisture content can affect wood strength and this should also be taken into account.Choose strategies that limit wood collection during production - a) carpentry intersects the trees in winter and leave them to dry for a year or two, b) the trees are seasoned only enough to grind and spicy as a tree after grinding, c) Use drought to dry woodmoisture content - connecting production to a specific construction method - a) Green wood is used to consolidate some joints while harvesting and collecting, b) plants or in tolerance movements minimizes collecting in the plane, c) construction of the technique minimize the systematic influence of collecting the totalquantities of load -bearing lines, mostly vertical to a linear structure.The seasonal obligation to cut trees for wood in winter is reduced in at least three ways: spring and summer wood rich in juice is easier to heal

Various designs

313

In the smaller cross-sections of Dimension Hout, the railway is extended into the forest, operating year-round for greater plant savings. 2 construction methods have been changed together. Shrinkage problems are circumvented in the design of the structural system so that all wooden elements bear the load vertically. Tursery is made with guides facing the grain so that any shrinkage occurs horizontally on a small unloaded section. Wood production enables natural forces to be translated into small extrusions - a) trees are solid structures, vertically free; the whole wood uses this natural structure, b) the grain pattern in the milled boards is what recognizes and harmonizes with the natural structure Visual key, c) the linear structure of the cellulose as its length along the main axis of the wood, creates a connection with the overall structural concept embedded in the construction method - a) construction in a heavy wooden frame depends on any connection, whereby the weakest connections are equally strong; wood is used in a way that approximates natural forces and geometry, b) the number of joints increases, weakens, and other elements such as upholstery structurally wear out; new insights into the strength of wood provide a more reasonable use of cross-sections and types, c) If joint fractures are tolerated in statistically insignificant cases, the entire house becomes a structural system; frame and interior contribute to the general sense of structure throughout the system. Structural calculations for light wooden frames require a change in the concept of construction performance. It acts as part frame construction, part panel construction, and is stronger than any calculation that assumes it is the other. Wider distribution of wood products requires less weight and uniform dimensions. a) the actual weight and traction of individually felled trees is limited by horses and winter snow, b) wood covers are limited by long-distance transport, lumber, lumber, lumber distributed across the country by rail c) automated forestry machines and saws Carpentry suggests using transparent hoods and the use of sunshades and the use of production where everything goes through production and requires cultural statistics of building sustainability. a) houses are considered solid buildings, anchored in the ground, durability depends on quality, b) elite houses are brick or stone, and larger wooden houses last for years, c) sustainable Appearance Appearance is no longer a function of architecture, architecture disappears in walls (Cavanagh , 2000). Incredible reductions in transportation and distribution costs have resulted in natural resources being squeezed out of their pristine ecosystems. Today, wood is emerging as a global norm for housing, meaning that cultural perceptions of sustainability are reconfigured and competing with local building traditions. It is lighter, more efficiently distributed than other conventional materials and more cost-effective than newer materials. While Hughes traces the history of large systems technology, Andrew Feenberg analyzes their impact on technical silicon. Both Hughes and Feinberg criticized their slowness. Both are conceivable. "Criticism

Immersed in water to dilute the sap to ensure that it sets evenly when stacking dry wood, and will not be warped. Maybee (1960) describes the influence of the railway.

314

T Kavanagh

Modern technological rationality can be developed... to bring about constructive change...' Feenberg (1999) argues that there is a need for a '...radical redefinition of technology beyond the usual boundaries accepted by philosophers between artefacts and common sense social relations. "

in conclusion

The philosophy of technology is usually limited to technical design and can be traced back to the technological models of the 20th century. This chapter shows how designers interpret the tools of philosophy. By focusing on case studies, I have shown that it is possible to raise interesting questions and fruitful discussions, not just technical artifacts. Applied more broadly, this should lead to new ways of understanding the design and everyday construction technologies that define our lives. For architects and historians of technology, the boundary between technology and the social or cultural world has always seemed porous. This makes definition and analysis more elusive, but allows for conceptualization around the idea of denying any neutrality to technology or seeing it simply as a tool, aid or means to an end. Consider diversity in design, thus broadening our selective affinity for positivist views of technological development.

References Bijker, W., Hughes, T. and Pinch, T., eds., 1985., The Social Construction of Technological Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mon. Bourdieu, P., 1990. In Other Words, Police Press, Cambridge. Borgmann, A., 1992., Crossing the Postmodern Canyon, University of Chicago Press. Cavanagh, T., 2000, On sustainability: thoughts on historical reconstruction vital to Bouwen, J. Arch. educate. 54(2):45-54. Cavanagh, T. and Kroeker, R., 2005, The revaluation of wood, in: Sustainable architecture, culture and nature in Europe and North America, S. Edited by Guyand S. Moore, Spon Press, Abingdon, VK, VK, PP. 123-143 (view, other). Cowan, R., 1985, The intersection of consumption: Proposing research strategies for technological research strategies, The Social Construction of Technological Systems, W. Bijker, T. Hughes and T. Pinch, eds., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA p. 262-280. Feenberg, A., 1999, Ask Technology, Routledge, New York. Feenberg, A., 2002. Transformative Technologies, Oxford University Press, New York. Gruber, T., 1993., Principles of Ontology Design for Knowledge Sharing, Technical Report KSL 93-04, Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory; http://ksl-web.stanford.edu/ksl_abstracts/ksl-93-04 .html Hansson, S. , S., 2002a, Understanding Technology Functions: An Introduction to Special Issues in Dual-Nature Programs, Technology 6(2): 1:1–3. Hansson, S., 2002b, BoxMeer (13 June 2002); www.infra.th.se/~soh/dualnatureconcepts.pdf Hounshell, D., 1984, From American Systems to Mass Production, 1800-1932: Developments in Manufacturing Technology, Johns Hopkins University Press.

Various designs

315

Hughes, T., 1989, American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Activation, 1870–1970, Viking, New York Kira, A., 1976, Bathroom, Viking Press, New York Kroes, P., 2001, Technological Functions as Disposition: a critical appraisal, Techné 5(3):1–16. Kroes, P., 2003., The philosophy of screwdrivers; Searle's functional analysis of technology, Techné 6(3):22-35. Kroes, P. and Meijers, A., 2002a, The dual nature of engineering artefacts: a proposal for a new research initiative, Techné 6(2):4–8. Kroes, P. and Meijers, A., 2002b, Replies to reviewers, Techné 6(2):39–40. Kuhn, T., 1970., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Maybee, R., 1960, The Age of Michigan White Pine: 1840-1900, Michigan Historical Commission, Lansing, Michigan. Mitcham, C., 2002, Are artefacts dual in nature? Two reviews of the Delft project, Techné 6(2):9–12. Moran, T., 2002, London (June 25, 2002); http://www.cityofsound.com/blog/2002/08/tom_moran_on_ev.html Rykwert, J., 1982., The Necessity of Artifice, Academy Editions, London, p. 23-32. Stross, B., 1999, Hybrid Metaphors from Biology to Culture, American Journal of Folklore 112: 254-267. Wachsmann, K., 1961, Milestones in Architecture: Structure and Design, Reinhold, New York.

Architectural Design Standards Joseph C. Pitt

present

In earlier articles (Pitt, 2006b) I compared successful design standards with the standard of engineering design. I think with the arrival of the "postmodern historical" in the 1970 building as now.To destroy everything else. The du center in Paris is an example.-It is important, but there is no harmony of a boring look. The form of a harmonious, but boring architecture is the construction of apartments in Levitton in the United States. In this chapter I compared these ideas to traditional standards.I have given some other standards for recording basic ideas: Given their functions, the architectural design must work hard to work in my background. In short, I will create a design goal of the name "common sense", partly based on some proposals of William James 1907.Dered ideas about the development of certain designs. Laned with the fields of their development, we should learn from it. This is an argument against the principle of universalism.Focus is not only a site of a website, but also insights we can get from indigenous culture. For example, I ended up with a complex of Michael Graves in The Hague.This is a success from a distance, but it seems to be a failure and an influence in the explanation. In this way, compared to the Guggenheim Museum of Frank Lloyd Wright, the grave complex can be useful.

J. C. Pitt, Virginia Tech

317

318

J. C. Pitt

Philosophy of architectural design and engineering

First of all, why emphasize architectural design? Or directly, what is the relationship between architectural design and technical philosophy? Life in a technical society is to talk about a society in which human activities imperceptibly become artificial products. Or other types, from computers to houses to travel, to the legal system and so on, in the process of life and the search for a better life. These artificial products are designed. Sometimes they are designed for one purpose, but they are also used for another, but they are still designed. Therefore, the core of the concept of artificial products is the concept of design. And since technical philosophy solves man-made products in many ways, many problems in architectural design belong to its scope. Simply put, the space for architectural design and its system for building a fence and mediation. These are the spaces we use for living, working, entertaining .Sometimes they have made a significant contribution to the goals we are trying to achieve in those spaces, but sometimes not. Therefore, before designing a space, we should have some standards to guide our design. We need such standards to maximize the opportunity to achieve our goals to the greatest extent, that is, creating space to actively contribute to the design activity of the space. These standards should have two purposes: 1. They should guide the design and 2. They should be the standard for us to determine whether the design is successful. ，即我们下载电影电影电影下载下载下载以下载下载的设计的毕业比会最报地，Because在从从推最最发的电影的设计的电影上，I think，factsAlmost inevitable, let or all the meaning very likely, but important changes. This means, when we start the design process, we may think we know what we mean by harmony, but look at a space that may not be harmonious. In this case the meaning of this concept or the coherent concept that we used At the end of the assessment, it has changed since our beginning. Now we have two different explanations of the same word. The explanation is that when we consider a concept like harmony, because it is part of our successful universe standard, the conclusion we draw is that, as a standard, it should normally be resolved in its meaning, and resolved in its meaning, and resolved in the meaning, and resolved in its meaning, and it is resolved in its meaning, and it is resolved in its meaning, and it is resolved in its meaning, and it is resolved in its meaning, and it is resolved in its meaning, and it is resolved in its meaning, and it is resolved in its meaning, and is resolved in its meaning, and is resolved in its meaning, and is resolved in its meaning, and is resolved in its meaning, and is resolved in its meaning, and is resolved in its meaning, and is resolved in to its Meaning, and resolves itself in its meaning. In fact, it does not have such a fixed meaning. When we start to design a process, what we think we think. Meaning changes in application or in terms of a Peircean expression, the meaning will change when the language promotes reality.

This analysis is closely related to Goodman's (1955) new induction problem and his term projection.

Standard of architectural design

319

James and common sense

In essence, James reports that commonsense categories of thought are historical quotas of commonsense, certain categories because the categories used at the time in this situation would increase the chances of survival and success, no matter how defined (James 1907; 1981). It can be an example of something in a certain context. Consider the following story, an example from practice. I asked a few friends from college if they would like to help my wife and I load the hay bales into the truck and unload them into our barn, and she, all the PhD students agreed and thought it would be great. The problem is that the road on the hill is quite steep and visible from the remote valley. As we neared the top of the hill, I saw the truck of an old frame maker who lived in the valley, stop and turn around, and his toilsome way up the hill to get to where we were. My wife drives a hay baler, she grew up on a farm but on flat land. I sat in the truck and agreed as I threw the bag onto the truck's load. At that moment, the old farmer got out of the truck and stared at us, just shaking his head. "How many PhDs are involved in this operation?" he asked. I replied that there were six of us. He sniffs, then asks, "Have you ever heard of gravity?" Then, laughing and laughing, he gets into the truck and goes home, shaking his head constantly. Looks like we ordered the truck to go uphill - the boy who threw the balun had to do a gravity defying jump. Throw them on the cargo pallet of the truck, it's much easier with gravity. He knew he grew up instinctively, well, he could walk with his dad from the time he walked, and so he gained a lot of common sense about what to do on the farm that seemed instinctive. This is what James means by common sense. In a different way, certain ways of doing things somewhere in certain circumstances become common knowledge because they are accepted by communities that do not need a reason. Over time, they justify themselves. However, the old French saying, plus le meme, i le meme, is not true. Consider the same scene twenty years later. The hayloft has been sold and the new owner no longer makes the small "square" of hay, but still makes hay. But now he's making hay with a big bail. To get them off the hill, they have to be transported one by one on the back of the tractor and at some point on the hill a round rack is loaded and you drive the tractor up the hill and up the hill point end end point up so that you So you can spit braces and put down down the hill without falling. The use of gravity has changed. Now, keep that in mind as I design buildings to coding standards.

Architectural design standards

As for design, there are classics in architecture, at least there used to be. Building code standards originate from the Roman architect Vitruvius. The three standards he established are Utilitas, Firmitas and Venustas.

320

J · C. Pitt

They are translated as "goods, solid and pleasure" -Robert Bruegmann (Robert Bruegmann) believes that Geoffrey Scott "Architecture of architecture from 1914." humanism) the best explanation of these concepts. Scott believes that the first standard is a commodity. A building can be judged based on whether the building has been successfully achieved. Or, in an extension of nature, we can judge them through the value of these goals; that is, the external purpose they reflect. These are really two different problems. The latter proposed a moral reference, while the former avoided it, but both were produced and could not avoid the connection between real estate in architecture and life. (Brugman, 1985, 3- 4)

Therefore, commodity or more faithfully translated use requires that the design of the building be adapted to the function it should perform and to that function. The first seems convincing enough, the second is less obvious. If we hit the limit, we could ask the mail to look like one giant envelope, which is certainly not the intention here. But it is not uncommon, for example, for government buildings to be life-size and for the transcendent functions of government to manifest human interest. Another criterion is strength. Mutual research, control and design of construction physics, electrostatics and dynamics studies. It is open to the expression of material properties and the laws of matter. Without them, architecture is impossible and its history cannot be understood. And, if we consider these places to be of vital importance, but not only to try to explain the history of the building in terms of material properties and the laws of matter, but to assess its value, but it will be assessed with precision and sincerity. She uses it to express constructive expressions. Facts and constructive law. (Bruegmann, 1985, 2)

Bruegmann interprets it as "solidity... refers to structure and composition. Architecture should not only be sound and logical, its structure, but should also appear that way." (1985, 18) Architecture has meaning The meaning is unclear. Also, with newer building materials and techniques, the appearance of the structure has lost some of its strength. Consider large indoor sports halls. The supporting structure of the dome is often vague and obvious. Nor is it clear from It might be a good idea to visually expose the building to the sound source. This example is not entirely relevant, but it should highlight the problem. Corning Industries is a large American company specializing in ceramic and glass products. When Virginia Christian When the Corning plant at Fortress was built in the 1960s, management expressed a desire to use as many Corning materials as possible. So the wise designer decided to use glass pipes in the piping and allow the pipes to be exposed overhead. When the factory was opened and inspected, the obvious error was discovered and the pipes were quickly taped. The third criterion handed down to us by Vitruvius was venustas or beauty or sometimes seen as pleasure. We can follow the third in architecture. This and other factors - disinterested desire for beauty. This desire does not, in fact, culminate here in a purely aesthetic result, since it does

Standard of architectural design

321

It deals with the specific foundations of utilitarianism. Nevertheless, it is a pure aesthetic impulse, unique from all others, which in architecture simultaneously satisfies the impulse to turn architecture into art. It is an independent instinct. It will take its advice from corporate or slave law; sometimes they will be opposed or offended by the forms they prescribe. It has its own standards and its own authority (Bruegmann, 1985, 4)

That's the problem. What makes a building beautiful? Of course, we want to resist the thoughts in the eyes of the beholder, but can we? Who is the arbiter of beauty? In some such -down modernist buildings, in post-modern historical buildings, the arbiters have become architects. But the architects 19th century and 20th century architects were different. The Enlightenment architect of the 19th century believes that the power of rationality can understand the nature of things. In this case, it is the essence of beauty. There is a deep-rooted belief that there is a natural law of dominance, and architects are the most qualified for the discovery of these natural laws. When dealing with this ineffable quality of beauty, the 19th-century modernist architect, the self-styled arbiter of taste, allegedly defended himself on the basis of rationality. As Bruggman said, modernist people believe that the work of architects is at least a true avant-garde architect. It is to discover what these things [beauty] laws have always existed and insisted upon. Conflict. With the development of the 19th century, avant-garde art became more and more of the taste of ordinary people. (Bruegmann, 1985, 22)

The search and hope of discovering the universal laws of beauty of the selected (ie avant-garde architects) is seriously undermined by the concern of Robert Venturi (1972), who with his postmodern architectural standards should be reconsidered. . When the ubiquitous large office buildings with various decorations, such as columns and arches along the sides of places (such as freeways), lead from Dulles International Airport outside Washington, DC to Washington, the only criterion in the outskirts of D.C. is to review past tastes of beauty, and we all know that Gustibus is not controversial. Couple that with the architect's closeted belief, a remnant of the 19th century, that he or she is the anointed arbiter of taste, this time based not on reason, but on anger or ego. I argue that the traditional standards for product evaluation have been violated. They undermined them with the development of new materials and technologies and liberated the modernist belief of the 19th century that there are some laws of nature that govern beauty. Whatever standard you give, everything is at stake

Steven Moore correctly points out that Venturi was not directly responsible for the plague. Venutri is motivated by political and populist considerations and seeks to draw explanations from the past, rather than impose them from an a priori elitist perspective. His work was also embraced by others nostalgic for his political and populist leanings.

322

J. C. Pitt

The taste of personal critics may be inspired by the response to modernity and modernist architecture, which tells us that there is very little information about the building itself.

common sense advice

Architects design spaces, but not all spaces are designed. Think of forests as undesigned spaces, although there are also designed forests in the Netherlands, France and elsewhere. Also, places can always be found in other areas. What I want to draw attention to is space within space. I am not interested in questions about the intentions of the designer, because his or her intentions have their own problems. Instead, I wanted to focus on the space itself. If space can always be found within space, then the relationship between spaces seems a logical starting point for a new discussion of design criteria. I also want to point out that the space has a history. A certain space becomes what it is because it becomes that space over time. This applies to buildings, cities or environments. The forces that create space vary, some are the result of human intervention (such as zoning) and some are natural forces. But spaces have histories, and the interesting thing about these historical spaces is that there seem to be some sort of evolutionary success stories that maintain some continuity over time. 3 However, certain types of spaces work better in some areas than others. When it comes to building new spaces, I recommend applying what I like to call architectural common sense. This is actually a normative statement: - The space must correspond to the space in which it is located, ceteris paribus. When I talk about spaces within spaces, it is clear that I am talking about the location and appearance of the space. There are other matters to be considered, but time and space allow these topics to be left to other times. However, there are two that seem particularly important to at least pay attention to. The first relates to the concept of function. That is, is the space doing what it should? Immediately after asking this question, another question comes to mind: who gets to decide what the room should do? The ready-made answer, the person or agency that gives the task, is problematic because the users of the space are often in a conflict of interest with the client and the designer. Who will decide whether the space is actually doing what it is supposed to do is another question that remains as unanswered as the first.

3 This idea that spaces have a history and that the realization that history is important in design is partly derived from some earlier ideas. In (Pitt, 2006a) I introduced the idea of interpretive context. A feature of the interpretive context when dealing with historical material is that it tells a coherent story. In (Pitt, 2001) I developed the idea of a coherent story as a philosophical problem, which states that to understand a philosophical problem in its historical context one must know its past history and, if possible, its solution or projected solution. Echoes of these ideas can be found in the idea of common sense design standards.

Standard of architectural design

323

One thing is for sure that the criterion for the application of space is a good building for that space.I like this idea for many reasons.However, people often wonder what that means.That's reasonable.So, first think about the following: - If the room is in line with the space in which it is located, then it is suitable for another room.Understanding what harmony with space is best to understand in a negative light, that is, it is easier to explain when the space is not in line but to explain what harmony means.This approach has many defects.Especially by saying what harmony is not, you don't say what harmony is.However, it is not necessary to establish a set of necessary and sufficient conditions, because as I said above, the meaning of the standard will change according to the behavior of the application.However, there are several things we can say about harmony and that should at least lead us to characteristic, if not definitions.First, there seems to be a scale that shows different degrees of harmony.At the end of the ladder there is a religious harmony, for example in Buddhism.Our topic is closer to the harmony of Japanese tea ceremonies.At the other end of the ladder there is a lack of harmony we find in a space that surprises us or constantly brings our attention to it because it seems not in place.At this area, I will accommodate the Portland building of Michael Graves.First, the Portland building seems to ignore its environment.Its small windows create visual mismatch with surrounding buildings.He doesn't fit his place, just standing there.The buildings are obstacles to moving through the area, whether this movement is visually or physical.Architecturally has little in common with the surrounding buildings.This is an example of excessive variations.It is located in a seemingly square area that could otherwise be a park, but it seems to ridicule the idea that it could be a park here, a heavy building with parts that seemingly randomly fit.He is visually the abuser.Assuming that this example gives us an idea of what means one space is not in line with another, let's look at the Golda Gemini Skyscraper in The Hague, the Netherlands, from a distance.When you pass them on the train from afar, they seem almost perfect.High and big, they exaggerate the traditional Dutch roof line and make their position act naturally.It seems to be excellent examples of the health -understanding architecture I mentioned earlier.Graves managed to deliver a traditional design that resists the time of time while having a very modern look.The roof line style historically had good reasons, mainly because of the weather.Moreover, the style was given a symbolic nationalist character.These are obviously the Dutch.Unfortunately, these buildings created an artificial division of parts of the city, between a populated and administrative city that was deserted at night.The Government complex, whose part, makes a a

324

J. C. Pitt

In the middle of the city center where you walk, from one part of the city to another. and he doesn't know the building anyway. On the other hand, it seems to be a metaphor. Since no one lives there, it's dark at night. Except for the glow of the street lamps, there is no one, not even a threat. The effect of distance, the actual impact of the building seems to be negative. Are the characteristics of the Hague grave characteristic of harmony? As you think, the answer is not "it depends". I'd rather state that said isn't really clearly "appropriate" because it's like Gravs' Portland architecture. The environment is not positive and has been destroyed before. The lack of harmony is not exactly up to the two spaces, which is part of what I call. When I say that the meaning of the concept changes through its application. In the Dutch environment, Graves architecture "Dutch" claims to be a positive side in the Dutch environment. Kant had a negative impact on the social life of the area. However, it can also be said that GURS Portland architecture has destructive social effect because it can be better used as a park in the room. Who knows that possible parks can become important places for drug dealers and other unpopular places. Our social impact is still not suitable for the vision. It has a historical connection with the neighborhood. It's just ugly a building that is in the middle of the city and has nothing to do with it. The more you think about it, the more connected ideas become more important in evaluating the space. That depends on my point of view and let's go back to the grave of the Hague complex. You will still say that they are connected .This is a government building. Their enormous scale is traditional in government buildings and the transcendence of government. This is clearly a Dutch government building, so there is another related feature. If the grave is located in two buildings in an interesting question posed by Wangerdrech to Portland, "Why not?" It seems that when we talk about correlation, we should study additional features of the space. If the city decides to establish a new government center in the suburbs of the city, that might be a different story. This is even a wise approach. This is perhaps an opportunity that can be shown and emphasized in the modern Netherlands and do it lively and dynamic. If these buildings now find their own space, you can not be disturbing and harmonious. The celebration of the website is crucial, but not the other thing. It is important that did not cause the overall failure of impact on the space.

Standard of architectural design

325

Design of common sense

I would like to close with some comments about design common sense. I am attracted by "passage" and "harmony" as much as the creation of living and working spaces and history. Harmony seems to need more. A sense of the historicity of a space is part of what is needed to live in harmony. At first glance, it makes no sense to place 60 floors of modern glass and steel in the middle of an old village of 200 inhabitants. It doesn't require a fully developed aesthetic, it just seems like common sense. It would be an insult to the generations of the village and the values and way of life that contributed to the culture. Yet our jamesei common sense brings this historicity, in the sense that cognitive dissonance is evident when we try to project the image of 60 glass and steel 60 glass and steel on the Delftse Stadhuisplein. The case will attract people's attention. But why? I think it's because, given our past experiences in cities like Delft, we don't want to see this kind of space in that space. Goodman formulates it this way, referring to Hume's inductive account. According to [Hume], regularities of experience lead to habits of expectation; therefore, predictions correspond to regularities that have been common or effective in the past. But Hume considers some regular facts, some unformed... (Goodman, 1955, 81)

Goodman's solution was his projection theory.My solution is to say that certain expectations have the form of commonly used but not thoroughly tested conclusions, with a history of these expectations.They do this because over time we learned acceptable conclusions because they successfully conducted action.But we have to be careful when we are referring to the power of history.History is a complicated mistress.Although this puts us in the past, we should not look at the past at the same time as something concrete.In short, grounding is not stuck.I do not deny that the events are happening to a certain order through time, etc. Let's call this "what actually happened" or history 1. I also don't talk about history as a story we construct about what happened: History 2. Furthermore, when constructing such a story, we need to take care of the historiography we use, history3.So, we can use concepts in a way that indicates that they are constants.An example could be my use of the term "Dutch" in describing the Graves complex.On the other hand, if my previous comment is true, terms like "Dutch" should change over time due to various historical coincidences.Therefore, it is not appropriate to limit people who lived in the surrounding areas of the Netherlands in 1250 BC only gradually from the 16th century in the Netherlands as we know it today.So, in a sense, we can say that history changes, ie history 2 changes.The story changes as we find out more

326

J.C.Pitt

About the past and when we changed the criteria for building the right stories (History 3).With this idea, we can give a different and even a positive grade of a tomb complex in The Hague.

7 Conclusion -Pon's Considering the grave, the mystery of Genheim finally solved a limited space that naturally protects them. Like Dutch, significance has changed from the recognition of navigation colonial empire to a person associated with the advanced culture of natural technology that is directly faced with nature.The history of continuous development, Gravs is in its construction complex in The Hague instead of what I suggested above, and can be considered the future of the Netherlands.How to solve past problems in the manner of futuristic technology. Looking close to the Hague construction complex, you will find a number of complex interconnected buildings and elevators.These buildings and elevators can be considered a future dam, which emphasized the direction of the next phase of the Dutch culture. Its huge and desolate foundation can still be considered huge, but because such a dam requires such a foundation.An initial explanation can now be considered a defensive measure against the invasion of the ocean.Provides a way to provide living space in the event of a land expanding possibility to reduce and need to replace traditional Dutch methods. Life in one house.Historical solution of the problem. The last example: Genheim Museum in New York.barem can be said to have caused a lot of feelings during the initial exposure. In accordance with the traditional villas from the rows facing the Central Park, does not display the traditional plane, but the curved space that apparently declines fromtop to bottom. In a certain extent, this can be considered completely incompatible in that environment. When you look at the street, it breaks the eyes of others. The surrounding environment. What does Frank Loudeite think? Let me suggest that he is considering art history and askingWe are questioning us how we look at it. The trading museum of art shows its exhibitions in a messy room. In an example, in the room we can see the Netherlands painting in the 17th century, and in another room we can see 19th century American romanticism, so we can make a recording of art history.But what if this is a wrong way of treating art history? Can we really draw a line between the 16th and 17th centuries or between the United States and the Dutch arts?

Standard of architectural design

327

For us, through the Guggenheim, art history is a continuum, and to see it that way you need a different kind of architecture, and the rest is history, so to speak. In short: common sense is a set of responses to environmental challenges, based on a historical assessment of that environment and the successful actions taken within it. To be successful, you have to think not only about history, but also about the problems that history has faced, some of which are still unsolved. Common sense, then, is a way of thinking about decision-making that leads to actions that take into account past successes, failures, and values and construct future actions based on those successes, failures, and values. 4 Finally, I would like to add that one of the hallmarks of common sense is to adopt new technologies as they evolve. It would be unwise to dismiss new materials, technologies and processes if they offer solutions to problems we could not solve in the past. So if the common sense principles of architectural design say that space must fit, then fit requires more than visual harmony; assembly also includes installation issues. In doing so, we may be forced to admit what we were unwilling to do before, which is that old values have been replaced. In this sense, common sense is not nostalgic, it is always forward-looking. 5

References Bruegmann, R., 1985, Utilitas, Firmitas, Venustas and Vox Populi, in: The Critical Edge: Controversy in Recent American Architecture, T.A. Marder, ed., MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, p. 1-24.Goodman, N., 1955, Fact, Fiction and Prognosis, Harvard University Press, Massachusetts Cambridge City. James, W., 1907 and 1981, "Practicalism", Hackart, Indianapolis. Pitt, J.C., 2000, Thinking on Technology, 七桥桥 Publish社, New York, http: //www.phil. Vt.edu/html/people/pittjoseph.htm Pitt, jc, 2001. , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 9 (4): 373-382.Pitt, J.C., 2006a, Seeing Nature: The Origins of Scientific Observation, in: Concepts de la Science: Evo, Aujourd'hui, Demain, Hommage à Marjorie Grene, J. Gayon and RM Burian, eds. ., Ousia, Bruxells, occupied. Pitt, JC, 2006b, Successful Design in Engineering and Architecture, in: Creativity: Technical and Artistic, H.-J, Braun Edited, Peter Lang, Frankfurt AM, Publishing.Scott, Geoffrey, "Humanistic Architecture: A History of Taste", Constable and Company Ltd., London.Venturi, R., 1972, Learning from Las Vegas, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

For an explanation of this vision, see the decision model developed in (Pitt, 2000). I would like to thank Carla Corbin and Thomas Staley for many helpful comments and corrections to early versions, especially Steven Moore and Thomas Staley. They will draw the necessary conclusions for me. Bottom Line Of course, remaining errors will still be my responsibility. 5

Cities, aesthetics, and human communities reflect on the boundaries of design by J. Craig Hanks

In experience, relationships, institutions, and traditions are as separate from the natural world in which we live as the physical world. But there are innumerable ways of dealing with [nature] that embody not only the different experiences of the same individual, but also the attitudes of desires, needs, and achievements that belong to the collective aspects of civilization. — Dewey (1980, 333) Many people do not thrive in cities, in fact barely survive... It is clear that [the late capitalist city] eats its own children to satisfy the unquestioned demands of the market economy because of the global Greedy and manic. — Grange (1999, 193) In general, you can find out what society really fears - its collective perception of dangerous others - by examining the architectural solutions of exclusion and isolation. ——Michelle (2005, 49)

In recent decades, people have drawn a lot of attention to the crisis of America's cities. Many of the problems we face include: sprawl, agricultural and wildlife losses, increasing race and economic segregation, increasing infrastructure demands, travel losses, financial loss, and shrinking communities. The following article examines two possible responses to this crisis: new urbanism and citizen environmental protection. New urbanism is because it is the most obvious, most obvious strategy and civic environment, because I think it means helping to lead a better response. I study how people working in each framework engage and evaluate proposed solutions and I study how people in each framework react to people in each framework.

Texas State University JC Hanks

329

330

1 1.1

J.C. Hanks

An introduction to the urban crisis

Articles on urban crisis, especially in the United States, about the many problems facing our great mobility cities.This is not a crisis in the late 1970s.This is not a crisis of burning cities, wild inflation and cultural "discomfort".compared to the political crisis.To live.I will briefly talk about this crisis and hint at the role of suburbanization in the process.Then I will consider two possible answers: a new urbanism and a civilian environment.In the end, I suggest that this type of civic environment is a better answer, much better, because although the problems we face are the problems of design and planning, they are not the only ones or even the main.

1.2

exhausted

Over the past 75 years, cities in the United States have continued to expand, with population growth responsible for approximately 31% of the land area increase in US metropolitan areas over the past 20 years, even for those areas that did not experience population growth through growth. , the area of urbanized land increased by an average of 18% (Ewing et al., 2000). Data collected by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development for its 2000 State of the Cities report show that the urban area is expanding at roughly the rate of population growth (US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2000). The development model emphasizes single-use development, with commercial, residential, public and other spaces developed independently. One of the causes of the spread and one of its consequences is our continued love for personal motor vehicle transportation (Boarnet and Haughwout, 2000; Heavner, 2000). Cars transport people from one space to another, mischievous social experiences and a community map, without centers and edges. Extensive growth patterns eat up land, increase travel time and costs, make walking more difficult, more dangerous, and lead to more pollution (Surface Transportation Policy Project, 2002; Office of Technology Assessment, 1994; Moffet and Miller, 1993; Mackenzie et al., 1992; Litman, 1992; Ketcham and Komanoff, 1992). worsened social isolation. Life patterns are increasingly divided by race (Berube, 2001) and economics (Frey, 2001; Glaeser, 2001). Furthermore, as sprawl continues, older inner-ring suburbs now face many of the same problems as central cities (Boarnet and Haughwout, 2000; Heavner, 2000). Take Atlanta for example. Atlanta's population grew 32 percent from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s. In the 1990s alone, the population doubled 65 miles north

Cities, aesthetics and human communities

331

It extends for 110 miles in the south. This distribution of growth is uneven. 1998. Atlanta's suburban growth was 100 times greater than urban growth. From the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, property taxes in Atlanta increased by 22%, vehicle trips increased by 17%, and ground-level ozone (as measured by unhealthy days in ambient air) increased by 5% (Nelson, 2000; US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2000; Bullard et al., 2000); Benfield et al., 1999).

1.3

The meaning of expansion

The expansion caused land loss and environmental degradation. In 1992 to 1997, it accelerated the loss of agricultural land in the United States.In the five years of the mid -and 1990s, we lost 11.2 million hectares of agricultural land and other open spaces that needed expansion. This means that the average annual rate of loss of 2.2 million hectares., the overall loss of the land caused by the expansion was 25 million hectares (Ministry of Agriculture, 1997). Maybe the spread of the American dream is, perhaps any problem can be easily solved. There are still many countries in the United States.If we build more roads, congestion will disappear.wal-Mart and SuperTarget provide our desire for convenience and promise that everything we need to concentrate is in one place.Usually opens 24 hours a day, and it is appropriate for access. Summary of this, the expansion development model is the result of answers to the real needs of people for free markets. In addition to want to want one villa and green space. The people also voted through the neighborhood and the issuance of bonds and local publicOfficer. If more people are no longer participating, perhaps because they are satisfied with the status quo. may not think so. This version of the American dream is "illusion" Ben Yaming calls. Fantasy scene is a false picture, which aims to be blinding and surprising.In is also a thing that is hidden at the same time. (Benjamin, 1999) We use rural villas and suburban houses as a key to building houses and places, because it is very similar to other places, so there is no place, and usually lives only for a few years.We buy vehicles as the key to mobility so we can sit in highway traffic. We establish a designed community as a key to security, we are afraid of other city towns and lets satisfy our fear. All this has completely fulfilled and destroy their promises. And these products still exist,As Benjamin said, the illusion- "Magic Picture of the Age" (Benjamin, 1996). As Benjamin's Paris, the 19th century was a nightmare, and the city must wake up from it, so we now live in a dream of the 19th century, that is, early suburbs, the country is quickly spreading to the west, and the 20th century and 20th century, American Century, possesses, possesses, possesses economic and military forces. This is also a fantastic version of citizenship. They can correspond to very formal citizens whoare mainly carried out in the following methods

332

J.C. Hanks

Speech activity and consumption in search of terrible images of personal interest.It is intimidating that a more complete sense of self would, and thus its own interest, recognized the impoverishment of this way of citizenship and human life in which there is little connection with people or places.But this model exists as dreams and ideals of survival versus awareness of greater personal interest and citizenship.Furthermore, we have some evidence that the paths of diffusion are neither sustainable or desirable.Surveys conducted in Colorad in 1998 and 2000 showed that 45 percent of citizens believe that resolving growth and transportation is the most urgent issue facing (Ciruli Associates, 2000).The 2001 American Federal Survey showed that more than 60 percent give the advantage to footweight, public transport and cycling trails, while less than 40 percent support the construction of several roads (Federal Highway Administration, 2001).Numerous national publications have investigated the growth of "megakerken" in the suburbs in response to segregation and lack of communities in most American suburbs.

2 some answers: new urbanism and civic environment 2.1

New urban design

The movement of the new urbanism was the answer to the development of the American suburbs.The founders of Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Wyberg with ethical passion advocated the possibilities of commercial residential construction such as celebration and coast of Florida.Duany says that we want to take advantage of market forces in their favor, we must "attack the enemy under his terms", and as Plater-Zyberg says: "The world improvement is just a good old design" Urbanism, 2005;Newurbanism .org, 2005;Duany, 2000;Duany Plater-Wyberk & Company, 1997).The new urbanism encourages the construction and renovation of diverse, passable, compact, lively fourth mixed with the same components as well as conventional development.But instead of creating wild growth, the new urbanism suggests combining these elements in an integrated way, creating whole communities.These new urban neighborhoods contain homes, jobs, shops, entertainment places, schools, parks and other public content necessary for everyday life.Furthermore, all these elements are within walking distance from each other.Instead of highways and roads, new urbanism promotes the addition of trains and light railways.Over the past 20 years, the growing share of the American population lived in cities, partly because the urban core approached each other and have many of the characteristics that new urbanism hopes to promote.Only since 2005, more than 500 new urban projects are planned or under construction alone in the United States, half of which are in historical urban centers.

Cities, aesthetics and human communities

333

The new principle of urban design (Newurbanisme.org (2005)) is: 1.2.3.3 4. 4. 6.7.7.9.9.9.

Infantry connection hybrid use and diversity of hybrid buildings quality of life and urban design of traditional neighborhood structure improve the sustainability of lean transport density

An important premise of the New Urbanism movement is the assertion that architecture and spatial organization strongly influence social behavior. Additionally, despite a certain modern cuteness in the design elements, New Urbanism is based on the distinctly modern idea that the "built environment" can create democratic utopias. It's also a movement built on a certain level of nostalgia. It is useful for new architects and urban planners to freely exchange ideas, which is best illustrated by town hall meetings. New urban development aims to recapture and even recreate these types of neighborhoods. In short, new urban development seeks to create a space with a recognizable center and forces to create a community through the manipulation of space. Article by architect Charles Moore (1965) "You have to pay for public life" in Influential Architecture magazine View article. In this essay, Moore describes the lack of public rhythm and public atmosphere on the West Coast of the United States, with a particular focus on the city of Los Angeles. Lacking an urban focal point or center, notes Moore, "the house is not so much tied to a caravan or a car. [The house] is not mobile like a car navigating the Ondermans Sea, but unfettered. ...This is... .a floating world in which the floating population can island hop…” Los Angeles is characterized by a lack of space (Davis, 1992; Jameson, 1992). Moore argues that the central characteristic of a city of recognizable places is that it has a clear and well-known center. Identifying a place and marking its center is a self-conscious communal act in which people come together to celebrate a place, and then the marker becomes a symbol of their shared values. In his article, Moore argues that Disneyland is one of the few truly public places in Los Angeles. Disney's new Celebration City derives from the work of Charles Moore, as he first pointed out that Disneyland was a self-conscious attempt to create an interactive public space in the rounded suburbs of Los Angeles. In Disneyland, we agree to pay for a shared life that we lack elsewhere, like a celebration.

334

2.2

J.C. Hanks

Ecological awareness of citizens

Unlike New Urbanism, civic environmentalism arose not as a response to failed planning or a lack of urban community, but to three failures of the environmental movement: top-down organization and overemphasis on abstract theoretical issues, namely - Humanity has intrinsic value), and a deep anti-urban bias , which means that the movement does not target where most people live. Civic environmentalism holds that members of a given community must plan and organize "to ensure an ecologically sound, economically and socially vibrant future" (Shutkin, 2000, p. 14). The central idea of this movement is that in order to have vibrant cities, we must (i) transfer widespread interest and support for the protection of remote wilderness areas into our immediate everyday environment, and (ii) network communities and build social capital (New Ecology Inc., 2005; Sirianni and Friedland, 1999; Landy et al., 1999; John, 1994). The guiding principles (Shutkin, 2000) are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The environment for the protection of democratic processes and regional planning, ecological ecological environmental ecological environment, the environment, is not a paradigm of planning or design. Since in the following discussion I will meet the limitations of the design model of urban crisis, the environmental activities of citizens represent a method that is open to different design models, because it is led by stakeholders. Cultivating democracy is more likely to be sustainable and effective.

2.3

What is the use of cities?

What is the use of cities? Why do we care if the city is empty and if people live in greater economic and racial isolation. Are we scattered in the countryside? And: When we imagine a response to the status of existing cities, what are we trying to do? We should pay attention to some of the reasons for urban conditions: 1. 2. 3. 3. 4. 4.

Public atmosphere, public life and policy service Community community and sustainability Self-discovery and creation

As many sociologists, political scientists, historians and philosophers have pointed out, modern democracy, modern cities and the "public sphere" emerged simultaneously.

Cities, aesthetics and human communities

335

(Habermas, 1991). Many people believe that public domain is vital to modern democracy, and modern cities allow this to do so: through social energy, economic power, division of labor and most importantly, differs from those who have thoughts, beliefs, values, valuesAnd life. One of the tasks of the city is to nurture this public domain and political community. Substances that suburb residents rarely meet people who have different experiences in the city, and the main interaction is a complex ballet of car, these people may lack critical participation in the direction of intelligence and experiences of citiesresources.grad. We can think about the work of Harvard's political scientist Robert Putnama.He shows that the longer people spend in traffic, the less likely to participate in the community and families (Putnam and Feldstein, 2003, 2003; Putnam, 2001).alienation with others and you.Pet, Dewey has an overview. Laying things, a desire to act, many people, especially in a hectic and impatient human environment of our life, have experienced almost everything after a lack of incredible lack.Other things happen so fast.So -Aled experience has become so universal and diverse, so it is an almost valuable name. Thetopage is considered an obstacle to demolish and not a call for thinking. In comparison with a conscious choice, a person will unknowingly find the situationwhich can most complete in the shortest time. (Dewey, 1980).

This leads to the fourth reason: self-discovery and creation. Modern cities are important places of self-discovery and self-creation. A way to help develop civic participants whose self-understanding is formed through face-to-face encounters with others. Another reason, community life, is also there. Cities are places of work and play within ever-changing networks of family and friends. All this leads to the third reason, sustainability. A sustainable city or community is one that is open to change. Static places, communities and people are often overwhelmed or vulnerable and therefore unable to cope with the real demands of life.

Assessment of new urbanism and civic environment

Consider the following story about one of the new exhibits of urban development. The first crisis of the celebration, the development of Disney's New Urbanism, was the widespread recognition that the celebrated houses were poorly built. The celebration appears to have been built with the help of unskilled immigrant labor, as it was the only labor available in Orlando's booming construction economy. Residents have very expensive homes with leaky roofs and plumbing, cracked foundations, standing chimneys and doors that won't close. Finally, residents formed a homeowners association to put pressure on Disney. This is how a community begins to form, but not because of the success of design and planning, but in

336

J.C. Hanks

Answers to common experiences with defective products. Disney tried to sell the community as a commodity, one of those things bought along with garage door openers and very formal street shows. Although this is only a brief anecdote about why new urban planning has failed, can we define the problem more precisely by considering the following questions. A) New Urbanism proposes solving the problem of community cohesion only through design, b) New Urbanism proposes a design solution that can be replicated in some aspects and leave existing design problems to be solved in other ways (such as the preference for single-family housing), c) New Urbanism proposes a top-down design solution, believing that existing market forces can solve urban dilemmas, and d) new urban development within existing legal and economic frameworks, Increased commuting and economic isolation. As a result, new urban solutions can replicate existing problems or even overcome them. New urbanism does aspire to create something like community life, although, as in the party show example, this may not achieve design success, but it does acknowledge a common problem. But it did not fail to foster public life and therefore to be a place for building true and sustainable democratic communities. I offer three reasons. (1) New urbanism assumes that self and desires are either (i) fixed or (ii) infinitely flexible. New urbanism attempts to solve urban problems by appealing to market forces that respond to new designs. One possibility is that New Urbanism assumes that our desires are fixed, but that existing markets have failed us. We would have a better life if we could release the latent desire for good design. Or it is possible that the new urbanism understands and assumes that this desire is malleable and that only design can change our desire. So if we can embrace these new design paradigms, people will respond to their long-submerged real desires, or new institutions will be so powerful that our desires will respond and embrace new urban communities. (2) New urbanism embodies the problematic search for security. New urbanism is a static design model. And determine what people need and want (or should want). However, the new urbanism itself is neither flexible nor changeable. An example is Andres Duany's response to the new "new Latin American urbanism". He calls it "Barrio Urbanism" and criticizes it for promoting a false aesthetic and celebrating poverty. Latin American New Urbanism began with the actual neighborhoods where many Latin Americans lived in the United States. Unfortunately, these neighborhoods lack the order, harmony, and predictable design features suggested by New Urbanism. Furthermore, residents of these neighborhoods use public transportation and live in smaller buildings not by choice, but because they are poor. Duany argues that these choices are benign only when they are chosen (Holtzmann, 2004). Therefore, New Urbanism is not concerned with sustainable development and encouraging the growth and creativity of individuals and communities. Finally, (3) New urbanism is a response to the urban crisis that represents disgust and distrust of cities. Such is Duany's response to Latino New Urbanism

Cities, aesthetics and human communities

337

Pointing out one of the biggest limits of new urbanism As a response to urban problems, new urbanism is an anti-urban approach. Modeled after colonial New England towns, it embodies the pastoralism of Thomas Jefferson versus the urbanism of his colleague Hamilton, but without Jefferson's emphasis on democratic communities. By emphasizing the community realm over the public realm, New Urbanism can lead to a loss of public life. As a result, we lose an important path for personal growth (living together with strangers). We lose the path of political will that transcends nations and corporations, and we lose the wonder and amazement of meeting strangers. Following Levinas, we become morally impoverished as our face-to-face contact diminishes. Weaker. Civic Environmentalism believes that design alone cannot solve problems. Furthermore, following the reasons I gave earlier for focusing on the fate of cities, I note the civic environment: the creation of public space is essential to any hope of transforming cities, neighborhoods and ultimately cities themselves. — does not take desire for granted. In contrast, civic ecologists understand that desire, self, and community are shaped by ongoing interactive processes focused on the quality of everyday experience. It has no pre-determined idea about the shape of the design and is therefore open to contingencies. Citizen environmentalists strive for an "immediate goal", the best goal that we can think of and agree on in the circumstances in which we find ourselves today. --Also, it does not assume only one way of life. Citizen environmentalists are open to the creative chaos of cities, but politics and community life enrich them. I should point out that to date the civic environment has rarely spoken directly to the practice and teaching of planning and architecture. For now, the codification of design principles is likely. Given that the procedure proposed by Civic Environment to solve urban problems is determined by those who care most, with experts acting as advisors, it seems unlikely that they will succumb to the belief that design principles alone will suffice. Note also that I am not saying that New Urbanism cannot respond to the crisis created by sprawl anywhere. Proponents of new urbanism have partially succeeded in bringing the relationship between urban and built form and the quality of everyday life to the public agenda. The new principles and practices of urban design embody many of the same values as the civic environment. My contention is that, to the extent that New Urbanism is primarily a design paradigm, it is inconsistent with the assumption that we will solve social problems through design alone. Furthermore, it could exacerbate these problems if it relies on existing social relations and market structures to transform our urban areas. The civic environment is therefore a more promising model for solving our urban problems.

338

J.C. Hanks

Benfield literature, F.K., Raimi, M. and Chen, D., 1999, with Greenfields, a council for defense of natural resources and a project of superficial transport policy in New York.Benjamin (W. Berube, A., 2001, racial changes in the largest cities: evidence of census 2000, Brookings Institution (July 21, 2005), http://www.brookings.edu/Es/census/census/CityGrowth.htm Boarnet, MG, MG, MG and Haughing, A.F., 2000, are highway highway and implication of highway growth policy, Brookings institution (July 21, 2005) http: //www.brookings.edu/Metro/Metro/Boarnetxsum.htm Bullard, B.D., 2000, The Spawling City: Atlanta, Atlanta's Atlanta, Race, Politics, and Planning. Ciruli Associates, 2000, Denver, CO. (July 21, 2005.); http: // www .ciruli.com/Polls/Co-Issues1.htm Davis, M., 1992, City of Quartz: Sums of New York Wine's Los Angeles Future. Dewey, J., 1980, The ArtExperience, Perry Books, New York. Duany Plater -zyberk & Company, 1997, Miami's Dictionary of New Urbanism, published inside the house. Duany (A.Ewing, R., Pendall, R., Chen, D., 2000,2000 (July 21, 2005) Proliferation Measurement and its Effects: Features and Consequens of Metropolitan Expansion, http://www.smartgroWSHAMERICA.com/Sprwindex/Sprawlindex/Sprawlindex/Sprawlreport.html Federal Administration, Washington, DC (21.July 2005);http: // www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/movingahead.htm Frey, W., 2001, urban families and singles in suburbs: new family stories from the 2000 census, Brookings institution (July 21, 2005), http: // www.Brookings.Ed/Es/S/Urban/Census/Freyfamiliesexecsum.htm Glaeser, E., 2001, Job Sprowl: Places of Employment in America Brookings Institutions Metropolitan Area (July 21, 2005, http://www.brookings.ES/URBAN/PUBLICATIONS/GLAESSERJOBSPRUWL.PDF GRANGE, J., 1999 1991, Structural Transformation of Public Sphere: Thomas Burger, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mahavi Ma Havner, B., Baltimore, Holzman, A. D.: Alternatives to the regulation of the state and community, Congressial Quarterly, Ketchum, Washington, DC, B. and Komov, C. in New York and the region; Kea, New York. Victorian Institute of Transport Policy. MacKenzie, J., Dower, R.Chen, D., 1992, Ride Speed: Right Price, World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Mitchell, WJ, 2005, Words: Signs, Space and City, Myth Press, Cambridge, Monftt (J. 1965, Moore, C., you have to pay for public life. Perspectives: Yale Architecture. J. 9/10: 57-97.

Cities, aesthetics and human communities

339

Nelson, A.C., 2000, The Effects of Urban Power Ratification on Housing Prices and Landowner Behavior, Land Lines 12(3):1–3. New Ecology, Inc., 2005, Cambridge, MA. (July 21, 2005); http://www.newecology.org/ NewUrbanism.org, 2005, Alexandria, VA (July 21, 2005); http://www.newurbanism.org Office of Technology Assessment, 1994, Energy Efficient Transportation in America; US Congress, Washington, DC Putnam, R., 2001, Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Communities, Simon and Schuster, New York. Putnam, R. and Feldstein, L., 2003, Better Together: Rebuilding American Community, Simon and Schuster, New York. Shutkin, WA, 2000, The Land That Could Be: Environmentalism and Democracy in the Second and First Centuries, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Sirianni, C. and Friedland, L., 1999, The Civic Environment, Civic Practice Network, Waltham, MA. Surface Transportation Policy Project, 2002, Pedestrian Safety, Health, and Federal Transportation Consumption, http://www.transact.org/report.asp?id=202 New Urbanism Congress, 2005, Chicago, IL (July 2005 21 . July ); http://ww.cnu.org US Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2000, Washington, DC (July 21, 2005), State of Cities 2000, http://usinfo.state.gov /usa/ infosa/ facts /states/socrpt.pdf United States Department of Agriculture, 1997, Washington, DC (21 July 2005); http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/NRI/1997/summary_report/ original/body.html

Nature, Aesthetic Value and Urban Design Building Natural Cities Glenn Parsons

Abstract In this chapter, I consider the relationship between the aesthetics of the built environment and the aesthetics of the natural environment with the aim of investigating its implications for the role of design in urban planning. In the first section, I describe some approaches to thinking about aesthetics that are common in the traditional context section, with different forms of aesthetic appreciation applied to each context. In the second part, I outline a different approach to understanding aesthetics that allows for a more unique approach to continue. In Section 3, I attempt to fulfill this promise by pointing out the similarities between the "visual order" of the natural environment and the "visual order" of the built environment. This also reveals important similarities in their aesthetic characteristics. Section 4 attempts to clarify this claim and provide some implications for our broader understanding of the urban planning process. In the fifth part, I summarize three objections to my claims.

1 Traditional thinking about aesthetic values, a natural and built environment, a large part of the classic ecological thought is based on a clear difference between the natural environment (especially the wild) and the human or the environment built.In order to draw attention to the value and importance of untouched nature, many protectors focus on what they see as its unique attributes: such as environmental harmony and sustainability and the ability to achieve human values, such as authenticity and freedom.In contrast, they often depict the human environment in a more negative light, for example as inherently unsustainable or environmentally destructive, while life in

Mr. Parsons, Ryerson University

341

342

G Parsons

The human environment as a technologically mediated, unreal and mentally numbing experience. 1 This dichotomy remains a powerful concept, palpable in everything from the symbolism used in advertising campaigns to the rising value of cottages near highly urbanized areas. One aspect of this traditional dichotomy between wilderness and built environments that I will focus on here concerns the aesthetic character of these environments. 2 While untouched nature, or at least parts of it, have become examples of aesthetic appeal, the built environment is more often associated with visual impairments, visual curses, and other forms of ugliness. 3 Some ecologists even claim that, unlike the aesthetic character of the built environment or art, the aesthetic character of wild nature is universal and even necessarily positive: that there is nothing ugly, perhaps even impossible, in wild nature. This view, often called the "positive aesthetics" of nature, remains controversial among philosophers. 4 However, it has the support of many in the environmental movement and vividly illustrates the current trend to distinguish the aesthetic properties of nature from those of architecture. Environment. Environment. Even if we leave aside this radical view, within the mainstream of philosophical aesthetics one can find important reasons for distinguishing the aesthetics of nature from the aesthetics of the built environment. One is the central role that the sublime plays in our understanding of the aesthetic character of nature. 5 It appeared at the beginning of the 18th century as a subcategory of aesthetic experience, distinct from beautiful, sublime experiences, often associated with widespread and/or powerful natural phenomena. As Kant described it: the sky is covered with dark clouds, lightning and thunder. Volcanoes full of destructive power; hurricanes with their traces of destruction; vast seas with turbulent waves; large rivers with high falls, etc.; all this shows that our resistance is insignificant compared to their strength. But as far as we are sure, his scenes are both more fascinating and more terrifying; we like to call these objects sublime... (1790, §28)

For an overview of this tradition, see Cronon (1995).In accordance with the usual philosophical practice, I will use "aesthetic character" and "aesthetic taste" as the most general aesthetic terms, and "beauty" consider a special form of aesthetic taste.However, I realize that "beauty" is often used as a general expression for aesthetic assessment, and some philosophers use it this way (eg Nick Zangwill: see being (1995)).3 Maybe, as Walter (1983) emphasized, the more case in North American cultures than in other cultures.For example, the vision in E.O. is clear.Wilson's famous "biophilia" hypothesis.Wilson writes: "Artifacts are much more miserable than the life they are designed for. They are just a mirror of our mind. To focus on them means folding over and over, each translation loses details, each cycle decreases, finally attracted to a lifeless exterior from which they consist of"(Wilson, 1984, p. 115).4 See the form of this idea for several defenses: Carlson (1984), Hargrove (1989), Godlovitch (1998), Saito (1998) and Parsons (2002).See Budd (2002) for criticism.5 On the classic tradition, the Exalted, see Monk (1960) and Hope Nicolson (1959).

Nature, aesthetic value and urban design

343

As Kant's description makes clear, the pleasure of the sublime differs from the pleasure of the beautiful in that it involves a "passive moment," a feeling of being overwhelmed or threatened. But through our release from immediate danger, the overwhelming or threatening aspect of the object becomes an element of pleasurable experience, often described in terms of awe or ecstasy. In its classical form, the sublime has always been primarily associated with the wild, as described by Kant, Edmund Burke, and other 18th-century theorists. As practical considerations require the removal of harmful elements from the built environment, the sublime must be sought beyond boundaries. Well-kept parks, colorful songbirds, and even bustling city squares may be beautiful, but they are not sublime in the classical sense. Even beauty, which is generally believed to depend on no quality unique to either environment, seems to contribute to the difference between the two. For example, one influential way of understanding beauty was that of the formalists, who understood aesthetic experience in terms of specific properties of objects called "forms." As Clive Bell explains: "Line and color combined in a certain way, certain proportions of shape and form, evoke our aesthetic sensitivities. These relationships and combinations of lines and colors, and aesthetically appealing forms, I called "meaningful form" (Bell, 1913) .6 Form-oriented interpretation of aesthetic appreciation encourages the connoisseur to notice and enjoy the shapes, lines and patterns in concretely placed objects. This aesthetic concept again differentiates The aesthetic characteristics of the natural and built environment are recognized, since the environments consist of quite different forms. Similarities exist: for example, a skyscraper can tower over a shopping street, just as a mountain towers over a forest (Berleant, 2005, 42-43). Architects are sometimes inspired by natural forms and explicitly try to imitate them. However, these cases are usually exceptions, and often the similarities between natural and built forms remain weak.Between them A clear example of the ubiquitous fundamental difference between objects is the modest right angle, a shape that is ubiquitous in the built environment but scarcely present in nature (Vogel, 1998). As noted earlier, these aesthetic considerations are only one aspect of a broader view of the relationship between the wild and the built environment in which, in the words of Holmes Rolston, "civilization is the 'opposite' of wilderness" (Rolston, 1991). However, recent steps have been taken to reconsider these perspectives. Driving this movement are theoretical concerns about the viability of the traditional distinction between wilderness and the built environment, and a growing awareness of the extent to which our notions of wilderness are shaped and used to defend different political perspectives Different Political Perspectives (Kronon, 1995) Andrew Light also argues that there are more practical motives for questioning this distinction: regardless of the mistakes people make, people do not leave the urban environment.

6 For formalism as a general view of the aesthetics, see Carroll (2001).Note that some theorists also include color in the concept of shapes (Zangwill, 1999).

344

G Parson

Environment. Instead, they embrace it (Light, 2001). This means that the health of our overall environment will increasingly depend on the characteristics of cities. Therefore, any view of the built environment as an "unnatural" place that cannot be repaired is unlikely to contribute to environmental problems. While aesthetic issues often do not receive much attention in environmental debates, I think the aesthetic dichotomy between wild and built environments is particularly compelling in light of Light's question, since aesthetic preferences seem to determine factors related to land and land patterns. Use transportation. The Greater Toronto Area, where I live, currently has a population of 5 million and is expected to grow by over 3 million in the next 25 years. 7 For environmental reasons, it is desirable to concentrate new residents within the existing city limits, reducing their need to use cars. However, this goal somewhat contradicts the persistent view that city dwellers are "trapped" in "unnatural" environments, while the real aesthetic appeal lies in the more "natural" areas outside the boundaries of the built environment. More importantly, it is theoretically questionable whether the aesthetic characteristics of nature and those of the built environment are as contradictory as assumed. To continue this idea, I need to briefly describe another way of thinking about aesthetics.

Knowledge, order and aesthetics

As mentioned earlier, if you look at the aesthetic characteristics of the environment only from the perspective of form (ie, patterns, etc.), the natural and built environment is almost not common. However, most of the current aesthetic methods believe that these forms of elements are aspects of the aesthetic characteristics of the object. In addition therefore, background knowledge of the object is considered a vital role. To illustrate this method, the first is to discuss the aesthetics of artworks. environment. The background knowledge related to Art Works is a known version of the basic element that determines the basic elements of aesthetic characteristics is attributed to Kendall Walton (1970). This allows us to see some order in the perceived quality of works of art, and aesthetic characteristics influence this order.

GTA Population and Employment Forecast to 2031, City of Toronto Development Services, June 2000; url = www.city.toronto.on.ca/business_publications/gta_2031.pdf 8 can be related to the role of background knowledge in art. 1974) and Danto (1981).

Nature, aesthetic value and urban design

345

When evaluating a work of art (such as a cubic image), someone's previous knowledge of cubic painting genre can affect not only one's historical appreciation of the same, but also on one's aesthetic appreciation.According to Walton, for example, to place a certain cubicism, to properly value it, you must understand that certain types of properties (such as the containing only geometric shapes) are conventionally necessary or "standard" for such works.Armed with this knowledge, we believe that works have different aesthetic qualities.Compared to other situations: for example, the picture looks calm and calm instead of looking chaotic and random.The Walton model can also be applied to the appreciation of natural objects;In this case, knowledge of the natural environment allows us to notice the order among his elements (Carlson 1981; 1993; Parsons 2002).For example, sets of plants and animals in a particular environment can consider us chaotic and random, and until the environmental and evolutionary forces that act in the area and the order and order achieved under these forces discover different elements (Carlson, 1993, 220)., 1986, 24).In any case, knowledge in natural history and ecology plays a key role in shaping our aesthetic answers, revealing a visual order manifested in appearance.While the aesthetic characteristics of the built environment have received less attention in philosophical aesthetics, Walton's approach to aesthetic characteristics can also be applied here.Which is not, it is a powerful factor in determining whether a certain built environment looks like, say, still chaotic.The flashing "open" neon inscription can seem usual until it is known from which window hangs from, until the church belongs to: then the scene takes on a "inappropriate", somewhat distorted features.In many cases, we do not notice the role of background knowledge in the creation of sensory strings because our background knowledge is another nature.Electric lines are ubiquitous features such as North American cities, but they are understood as the necessary features of the landscape, we can "see" them when we appreciate the urban landscape.Just as we do not evaluate the aesthetic value of the image on the basis of being 'only' two -dimensional or 'cut off' on the edges, we do not focus on the electric line sample in our non -aesthetics estimate of the street scene.9 as

I am not saying that we can never do this: we can, especially if the lines are particularly attacked or noticeable, or impair some functional aspect of the environment.I also do not say that electric cables do not play any role in our aesthetic assessment of street landscapes, but rather, the thing is to see the wires as a necessary element of street landscapes, changing their role in determining our aesthetic judgments: instead of serving as a distraction and foreign elementsVisual patterns are noticeable, but they take a place on the periphery or background in our aesthetic experience.

346

G Parson

In the case of works of art and natural environments, a set of background concepts of the built environment allows us to see the order of the elements that appear to us in the sensory experience, and this order is a key environment determined by its aesthetic character.If we accept this notion of aesthetics, then, contrary to the established opinion, the aesthetics of the natural and built environment may have an important common point.Because while the environment built lacks objects suitable for exalted experience and lack different formal characteristics of nature, the sensory "order" that is revealed through appropriate background knowledge can resemble a natural environment.In this case, it could be argued that there is indeed an important continuity in the aesthetic character between the built environment and the natural environment.Someone, however, could wonder if my thinking supported this claim, since the possibility of continuity that opens here rests on the claim that the natural environment and the environment built are similar to environmental types that require similar types of aesthetic knowledge.Proponents of the traditional understanding that the natural environments are built aesthetically different can simply deny it.Therefore, in support of this claim, I must immediately consider whether the perceived order is exposed in the natural environment and the constructed environment is comparable.

The order of perception in nature and the built environment

Indeed, this concern is an emergency, because discussions on this topic often emphasize the differences in the order of the natural and built environment.The latter is often described as a functional order because it consists of elements whose most pronounced feature is their function in certain aspects of human life.For example, the aforementioned appreciation of the visual order in the street landscape develops that we understand the function, and thus the necessity of high -voltage lines so that we can 'pass' beside them.From this point of view, in order to understand the harmony or chaos expressed in a traffic street or group of buildings, we must understand the purpose of these elements.The philosophers, however, hesitated to use the concept of function when they described the order shown in a natural environment.Like other teleological terms (such as "purpose" and "goal"), functionality is often considered conceptually related to the presence of design intelligence, and therefore inappropriate for scientific descriptions of the physical world.In the light of this, describing the natural order as a "functional order", at best, some considered lazy anthropomorphism, and in the worst case disguised.As Larry Wright says in philosophers, "wherever he appears, the smoke of teleological expressions suggest the flames of careless thoughts" (1969, 211).This general skepticism on the applicability of functional features to wild animals is reflected in discussions about their aesthetic features.well known

Nature, aesthetic value and urban design

347

For example, the discussion of Allen Carlson describes the natural aesthetics as the aesthetic form "oriented", and not "design-oriented", as raw nature has no "purpose or function per se" (2000, 134).For this reason, the order representing the natural environment is revealed through the understanding of the physical laws and unintentional processes of historical development that led to the emergence of the environment.Since the natural environment is not a product of design intelligence, elements within it do not serve any function or purpose.In this direction of thinking, the opportunity I presented earlier, the continuity between the aesthetic features of the built environment and the natural environment, is excluded, as the order of perception characterized by each environment is different: first is entirely in the game., And there is absolutely no effect on this other.However, I don't think we should ultimately accept this dichotomy.In fact, Carlson was reviewed in later writings and introduced the concept of "functional fit", which can be applied not only to the built environment, but also to the organization of certain types of ecosystems (2001, 13).In another place, I suggest we can develop Carlson's approach by connecting it to some well-established functional concepts that can be easily applied to the elements in natural environments (Parsons, 2004).I will briefly describe two of these senses and show how they apply not only to natural but also on the built environment.These functional descriptions have arisen because, despite the suspects of philosophers, biologists continued to explain the existence and / or form of biological properties and structures by referring to their function.10 The most famous description of the "naturalization" function is that of the item or property is therefore the effect of this item or property that explains the selectional organisms with this subject, and thus cause the trait in its currently present offspring.11 For example, kidneys have a specific function of removing the metabolic waste from the blood, because the removal of such waste products is the reason why the kidneys are favored by natural selection.Another important functional description of naturalization is a function of the causal role.According to this point of view, determining the function x does not explain the existence of X, but as a larger system works the X is part of.12 The important difference between these two concepts is that the functions of causal action can represent natural facilities that did not pass the natural selection, including non-living things.Let's take the river as an example

As Mayr says: "Biologists insist that they stand to lose much methodologically and heuristically if they are prevented from using this language" (Mayr, 1988, 41). See also Godfrey-Smith (1994). 11 On this issue, question this approach by Wright (1973). See Godfreysmith (1994) and Neander (1991a) for discussions of selected functions. 12 Robert Cummins (1975) presented this analysis. See Davies (2001) and Amundson and Lauder (19944) for more information on this post.

348

G Parson

With the causal flood function, in an ecosystem that belongs, Rijeka regulates the behavior of flooding and distributing nutrients into the surrounding floodplain, and both are useful for an explanation of ecosystems that supports the ability factor of different types.13 Another important difference between them is their normative nature.The selected functions are canonically in terms of the entity that the entity can have the selected performance function due to its history, but this cannot currently be done due to damage or disease.In this case, the entity in question is defective.On the other hand, the function of causal role are often considered abnormatives because they are defined in terms of powers that occur: when there are no these powers, missing and functions of causal role.The difference is that each of the different expressions of the concept corresponds to the chosen function, we are talking about things that have the function that they do this, but for the functions of the causal role it is more natural to talk about something like a function so-and-so (Wright, 1973, 147) somethingIt can have a function of performing X, although it doesn't really work X, but if something just works as X and then it stops, it's not outstanding to say it doesn't do it anymore.For example, when a cloud that acts as a shadow of our sun continues to move, we are not inclined to say that it is defective.Most philosophers are now watching each of these functional analyzes as capturing the acceptable and important sense of 'functionality' in naturalistic terms used by biologists (Godfrey-Smith, 1994; Sobriety, 1993).The point I want to emphasize here is to apply equally to the built environment.The designer intends to produce, which characterizes many artifacts in the built environment, such as a close relative of the selected function: the bridge has a pedestrian traffic failure because pedestrian traffic is what his designers have set the reason for the reason.In this case, as well as in the case of a selective function in nature, the function of the facility is the reason why it exists, that is, as it is.In this sense, both types of functional allocation of "historical" are.14 The concept of the function of causal role can also be applied to the elements in the built environment, as elements in the built environment can perform certain functions even if they are not intentionally placed for these things: Public cemetery become places for picnic, rumbleThe daily train becomes a time signal for the local population and more.There is something common between the aesthetic features of the natural and built environment: a common perception sequence that is manifested in understanding history and causal function of different elements.Given this, it could be argued that, in a certain sense, aesthetic appreciation in a natural and constructed environment shows deep continuity and unity despite superficial differences.

This example is from Parsons (2004).For other examples of causal role functions in nature, see Neander (1991b) and Millikan (1989) in case of "confusion" function of causal roles.14 That is, both fall under the general concept of the functions proposed by Wright (1973).

Nature, aesthetic value and urban design

349

The design of design in the architectural environment

I now claim that there is a continuity between the aesthetic characteristics of nature and the aesthetic characteristics of the architectural environment.I want to see why this continuity may also be an important impact on our attitudes on urban design. As described in paragraph 1, one of the reasons of this continuity is that following classic environmental thoughts, natural aesthetic attraction is usually considered aesthetic attraction with architecturalby surrounding. By eating urban residents to leave the city to find a "right" aesthetic experience, such an attitude can have problems with the environment. What is the possibility of closely related to the aesthetic characteristics of the architectural environment, instead of separating from the natural environment.construction environment (such as urban design, landscape buildings, etc.). Indeed, a prominent movement of these areas is the target organization that makes the city more natural. The "eco -friendly design" is usually shown that there are many goals, including concrete that occurs in nature, the process of building constructionenvironments and increasing our awareness of the impact of the city on the surrounding ecosystem.15 efforts are general priorities that usually reduce energy, reduce pollution and harmonious cities with surrounding ecosystems. Perspective of aesthetics, the city method of "nature" contains a basic limit, that is, the process of implementation is usually a productDesign.Jer even the City of Ecological Design is still a city design, and as we can see, the characteristics of the natural environment are a large part of its functional order basically not -historical.16 This causal function of responsibility is generated by encouraging different forces that drive existing elements (ifsomething), no matter how they become the current way.This does not mean that the environmental design is not desirable or is incompatible with a more natural architectural environment: on the contrary. The interior is that the method of this environmental design does not create an environment by itself.In terms of my appearance, it borders on a natural environment in a natural environment. What do I need? Maybe some contradictory is that the role of the design is needed, so the function of the cause can occur and can pay more attention to the existing order of function.

On ecological design, see Van der Ryn and Cowan (1996) and Todd and Todd (1994). For a philosophical discussion of ecodesign, see King (2000) and Saito (2002). 16 In their discussion of ecological design, Van der Ryn and Cowan write: "Unless our daily activities are designed to maintain ecological integrity, their cumulative effect will continue to be devastating" (1996, 18; their key).

350

G Parson

This planning method is not fresh: Jane Jacobs and others have always advocated for this method.They insist that "cities are not constructed like mammals or steel frame buildings" and should not be considered a fully designed entity (1961, 376).O contrary, Jacobs emphasizes the "complex functional row" generated by the interaction of different parts of the construction environment is that a seemingly random pedestrian course does not intend or design the homeowners and safety (1961, 29-54) .jacobus believesthat the attention of this functional order is the key to understanding the actual way of urban operations. The most important thing is here that the order of this function involves the causal type of causality we found in a natural environment, for example, when floods encourage fish to maw and renewLocal flood area .17 Jacobs et al.Show the function of toleration of causality, as well as mitigating the deliberate design role containing, but also a very ideal goal for urban planning. What can be transformed into our aesthetic experience in an urban environment. Jacobs compares our experience in urban "complex functionalThe order "with a more typical aesthetic experience, which explains: under the chaos on the old town there is a place where the old city has managed successfully.Beautiful order to ensure maintenance maintenance. While a town ... We can imagine that this is the artistic form of the city and compare it to dance - in accordance with a simple precise dance.In such a dance, everyone dances and rotates at the same time.At the same time, they favored collectively, but became a complicated ballet.Among them, each dancer and the group ensemble had a unique part.These parts were struggled miraculously and formed a neat whole. (Jacobs, 1961, p. 50)

I want to emphasize that my advice for creating built environments that have significant aesthetic unity with their natural surroundings is not about simply "going with the flow" and waiting for cities to magically become beautiful. A built environment without design elements can be aesthetically, let alone functionally, cluttered and not reflective of the unique aesthetic sensibility we hold in the wild. Rather, the goal is to create a built environment that reflects nature in its mix of historical and causal roles. However, the challenge is not just to find the right amount of design, but to correctly connect it to the undesigned functions at play in the built environment. Here we can observe nature because in nature there is selection and the functions of the causal function

Jacobs also emphasizes that finding order in the built environment "makes sense" and that order is a perceptual order: "Once understood as systems of order, [complex systems] actually look different" (1961, Jacob's italics p. 376). Jacobs, however, does not dwell on the parallels between the natural and the built environment, preferring to describe the city in terms of the city itself (1961, 376). Yet she implicitly draws a connection between the two when she reads the idea that cities are "the malevolence of nature." Exactly the opposite. ’ Not appreciating natural beauty, Jacobs said, ‘it is evident that a very familiar mind is at work...a mind that sees only pain, where there is a very complex and unique order; the same Mind sees only the chaos of city street life and longs to annul it, to standardize it..." (1961, p. 447).

Nature, aesthetic value and urban design

351

they are in a mutual notification relationship. Precisely because the trait, despite having arisen from random mutations, functions as F, which is a trait that increases the organism's environmental fitness, the trait is selected and ultimately endowed with a function that enables F to produce food. Developing properties with selected functions that perform F often results in something that also fulfills other "unexpected" functions. In this balance of communication and interplay, perhaps lessons can be learned to bring the sensual arrangement of our work and living spaces closer to nature.

three complaints

I would like to express three complaints to my statement that the aesthetics of cities and natural environments should not be viewed as diametrically opposed, but as important consent.The first objection is that this is simply amazing, which shows that nature and cities are aesthetically identical.This can be done, pointing out that despite any functional analogy between nature and cities, these environments are still quite different in terms of perceived appearance, shape, colors, etc. Since these differences would be transformed into significant differences in the aesthetic qualities of natural and urban environments, it can be argued that they must be considered different types of aesthetic objects.Of course, natural and built environments differ in many aesthetic characteristics.My argument is that they could share something aesthetic, at least for an eye addressed.Furthermore, this common aspect can be highlighted, even the central element in our aesthetic response to both environments.Dawkins, for example, shows that his appreciation of a functional order is manifested in the appearance of bats, which overcomes and suppresses his earlier aesthetic answers.It seems that the "wonderful order" that Jacobs also recognized in certain urban landscapes is not subordinate or limited aesthetic quality, but a penetrating and prominent feature of this environment.Regardless of our decision to view the natural environment as the same type of aesthetic object, what is most important is our awareness of this important common dimension.However, my attitude can also be opposed from the opposite angle.In addition, without a claim that there is too little aesthetic stacking between nature and the city, I can state that I think there is too much stacking.More specifically, it can be argued that people will be more inclined to replace Wilderness if they think the two are aesthetically comparable.Implications of this care depend on the causes of the type of urban development that destroys the natural reserves.There are two options: it is either maintained because of the aesthetic attraction of the urban environment, which creates a desire for something beyond the "ugly" city, or is generated by something else.I mentioned my first possibility earlier and suggested

352

G Parson

At least it is reasonable.But if true, the remark is obviously incorrect, as the emphasis of the aesthetic features of urban areas like nature reduces aesthetic dissatisfaction with urban areas, and thus undermine the destruction of natural areas.However, if the second option is true, a different answer is needed.For example, if urban development that affects natural areas driven by economic factors, emphasize that the aesthetic characteristics of the urban environment have no impact on that.To the extent that the preservation of the unique beauty of natural areas becomes an argument against this economic force, the highlighting between urban and natural beauty can actually contribute to this development.However, however, it assumes that urban development that destroys the natural areas of the urban environment, which is similar to the natural environment according to the functional order.But it will hardly happen.The most adhesive form of urban development associated with the destruction of natural areas is urban expansion.However, urban expansion is a typical example of an environmentally built environment with a different functional order than in nature: highly designed and regulated, without density and spontaneous element interactions, does not abound in causative functions.Thus, in many cases, we need to deduct the potential loss of natural areas and their aesthetic qualities in the economic (or other) benefits of development, my view would not support development because it is unlikely that the aesthetic qualities lost in nature repeated.in that development.In the end, you could ask yourself: Why call nature?Wouldn't it be better to base the aesthetics of the built environment in the nature of the environment, instead of relying on analogies with "nature"?In fact, analogies between nature and cities (such as "concrete jungle") are often used to emphasize the negative characteristics of cities.Arnold Bereleant notes that while "wilderness" gained positive connotations during the last century, "when the wilds of wild experience are applied to the urban experience ... 2005, 42). But natural analogies are not used to promote positive connotations of urban aesthetics."Attitude, it doesn't mean it can't be that way.Because, as I tried to show, the city and its natural environment have not only negative, but also positive aspects.In fact, given the lack of research of the built environment in the modern philosophy of aesthetics, it is attractive to use analogies in this way.Given that comprehensive AB initio descriptions of the aesthetics of urban areas do not seem to be available, I think we would be stupid not to take advantage of the rich resources developed for the natural environment we can measure their influence on the built environment.Adaptability, even if it is weak, at least allows for a better understanding of the right dimensions of our entities.The last important consideration is that, either good or bad, our culture continues to observe nature as a model of aesthetic quality.Although the situation is still, but connecting the beauty of the built environment with that nature is a promising strategy.18 18

Early versions of this chapter were published at the 2005 meeting of the Dalph Philosophical and Technical Society of the Netherlands. I would like to thank the participants, especially the helpful comments provided by Andrew Light. Financial support is provided by the Canadian Humanities Research Commission and Rylson University.

Nature, aesthetic value and urban design

353

References Amundson, R. and Lauder, G., 1994, Functions No purposes: use of causal functions in evolutionary biology, biol.And Phil.9: 443-469.Bell, C., 1913, Art, Frederick A. Stokes Company, New York.Berleant, A., 2005, Wild Cities: Study of metaphorical experiences, in: Aesthetics and the environment: Variations on the topic, Ashgate, Burlington, Vermont.Budd, M., 2002, Aesthetic nature appreciation: Essays of nature aesthetics, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Carlson, A., 2001, on the aesthetic evaluation of the human environment, Phil.and geography.4: 9-24.Carlson, A., 2000, aesthetics and the environment: Respect for nature, art and architecture, Routledge, New York.Carlson, A., 1993, appreciation of art and respect for nature, in: landscape, natural beauty and art, ed.S. Kemal and I. Gaskell, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Carlson, A., 1984, Nature and Active Aesthetics, Environment.ethics.6: 5-34.Carlson, A., 1981, nature, objectionivity, and aesthetic judgment, J. of Aest.And artistic crete.37: 267-276.Carroll, N., 2001, Formalism, in: The Routledge Companion to Aesthetics, B. Gaut and D. Lopes, ed., Routledge, New York.Cronon, W., 1995, the problem of the wild;Or, Back to Nature Errors, in: Uncommon Ground: Rethinking The Human Place in Nature, W. Cronon, ed., W.W.Norton & Company, New York.Cummins, R., 1975, Functional analysis, J. or Phil.72: 741-765.Danto, A., 1981, Metamorphosis of the ordinary: A Philosophy of Art, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.Davies, PS, 2001, Natural standards: naturalism and nature of function, mit press, cambridge, ma.Dawkins, R., 1986, Blind American, W.W.Norton & Company, New York.Dickie, G., 1974, Arts and Aesthetics: Institutional Analysis, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.Godfrey-Smith, P. 1994. Modern historical theory 28: 344-362.Godlovitch, S., 1998, Nature Appreciation and Nature Aesthetics, UK.J. Van Est.38: 180-197.Hargrove, E., 1989, based ecological ethics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Nj.Hope Nicolson, M., 1959., Mountain Gloom and Mountain Glory: Developing an aesthetic of Infinity, Cornell University Press, Ny Ithaca.Jacobs, J., 1961, death and life of large American cities, Random House, New York.Kant, I., 1790 [2000], Criticism of judgment, JH Bernard, TR., Prometheus Books, New York.King, R., 2000, Environmental Ethics and Built Environment, Env.ethics.22: 115-131.Light, A., 2001, urban blind spot in ecological ethics, Env.politics.10: 7-35.Mayr, E., 1988, Multiple Significations of Teleology, in: According to the new philosophy of biology: Evolutionist observations, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.Millikan, RG, 1989, in the defense of the correct functions, Phil.By sc.56: 288-302.Monk, S., 1960. Exalted: Study of critical theories in the Eight Starthe, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.Neander, K., 1991a, teleological concept of function, Aust.J. from Phil.69: 454-468.Neander, K., 1991b, functions as selected effects: Analysts' defense concepts, Phil.By sc.58: 168-184.Parsons, G., 2004, Natural function and aesthetic appreciation of the inorganic nature, UK.J. Van Est.44: 44-56.Parsons, G., 2002, respect for nature, science and active aesthetics, UK.J. Van Est.42: 279-295.Rolston, H., 1991, re-confirmed the idea of the wild, the environment.Prof 13: 370-377.

354

G Parsons

Saito, Y., 2002, Ecodesign: Promises and challenges, Env.eth.24: 243-261.Saito, Y., 1998, Aesthetics of the Necenske Nature, J. Aest.en Kunstcrit.56: 101-111. Sober, E., 1993, 生物学哲学, Westview Press, N. and Todd, J., 1994, from ecological cities to live machines: Principles of ecological design, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley.Van Der Ryn, S. and Cowan,S., 1996, Ecological design, Island Press, Washington, D.C.Vogel, S., 1998, Paws and Catapults cats: Mechanical worlds of nature and people, W.Norton & Company, New York.Walter, J. A., 1983 年, 你会爱上山脉, zemlja zemlja ma 上上山脉山脉, zemlja 会爱上山脉.Walton, K, 1970. 年, 艺术类别 ,, Phil.Rev.79: 334-367.Wilson, E. O., 1984, Biophilia, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Ma.Wright, L., 1973, Functions, Phil.Rev.82: 139-168.Wright, L., 1969, case against telelogic reductionism, brit.j.phil.van sci.19: 211-223.zangwill, N., 1999, feasible aesthetic formalism, Ноюс 33: 610-629.Zangwill, N., 1995, The Beautiful, The Deanty and Dumy, Brit.j.Aest.35: 317-329.

Content

A Ackoff, R. L. 218 Actors Network Theory 111, 161 Adorno, Theodor 293 Aesthetic value 342 Emoticon design 145 Airbus A380 241 Alexander, Christopher 282 alienation 134 Antiration work 276 Analysis 299 ANDERS, G ÜNTHERS 181 FONDINGS 289 Stars 289 Architectural design 1, 318 Production 280 represents 287 Antter and Hannah's 263 artificial products Dual features 23, 31, 303 Freedom 96 Free 93 Artificial products 154 Artificial system 262 Art Innovation 274 Production 279 Uncertain assessment 127 ATR 146 ANGGE, ROBERT 69 Authority 280

B BALLOONFRAME 308 BASALLA, GEORGE 65 BAUHAUS 6 BEHANSCH & BEHNISCH 290 BELTALANFFY, 232 BIOGIJEJN 233, 235 BIOLOGY, HUMAN 198 BION BOX 177 BORGMANN, ALBERT 155 BOSTROM, NICK 215 BREAUS AL, CYNHIA 143, 152 Building regulations 28 1 Culture 275 Built Environment 341

C Carlson, Allen 345, 347 Classification 210 CAUSE EXPLANATION 73 Challenging Space Boat accident 5, 121 CHOICE SOLUTION 250 Civil Ecological Consciousness 330 Buyer 3, 108 Codes 281 Code 283 Genetics 237 Technology 115 Commodernization 138 CONTRIBITION 319 Communication 40, 44

355

356 components 234, 238 computers 138, 210 Connecticut Museum of Science and Discovence 290 Architectural Planning 236 Research by Constructivist Technology 111 Consumers 41 Consumers 305 Contracts in Architecture 274 Remote Management 279 Convergence Technologies 2, 186 forged naturalism 26 5Architecture 275 Production 273 Technology 120 Cyborg 187, 192, 203, 214

Davidson, Donal 33 Dawkins, Richard 62, 69 Democratic 203, 334, 32, 39, 42, 106 building 1, 318 BIO 233, 235 STANDARD 318 DIALOGUE 247 EFECT 145 PROJECT 1, 71,77 ethical value 12, 77 Expert 299 Interface 183 Natural 255 Normal 79 Plan 40 Problem Convert 219 robot 143 Space 115 Social Technology System 237 Cities 9, 333, 349 Design construction Dorisher 283 Designer Misconceptions 51, 128

Index intendion 53 Property 107 Use 276 Determinist GEN 198 Dialogue 169 Dignity, Language, Language 248 Technological Development 200 Mendelle 200 Mendel 200 DNA 199 D On 199 Technical Duality Relect Technical Relikes Duality 23, 23, 31, 31, 303 Duality Design and Use Design and Use Caution 125 DUFFY, BRIAN 148, 153 DUPUY, JEAN-PIERRE 183

E Ecological Society Architect 289 Efficient design 145 Efficient production 279 Elitism 300 Emery, F.260 engineering design 1,71,77 Ethics 253 Genetic 134 systems 8,219 Improvement 186 Genetic 197 environment, Natural 341 Design 12 77 Epigenetic factors 12 77 Technology 5, 9 , 12, 77, 91, 99 Functions 28 Technology Evolution Theory 61, 306 Blindness 64 Different Adaptations 64 Genetic Copy 64 Genetic 64 Mutation 64 Mutations and Reorganization 64 Type Experience Knowledge Range 64 Removal Range 64 Removal Rate 64 Disassembly Technology 64 287 287

INDEX Professional knowledge 42 Cause and effect statement 73 Explanation 73 Broad culture industry 167

F izboro 20 Feenberg, Andrew 112, 150, 303, 308 Fit, Space 322 Ford Pinto Case 125 for-natural of Artefacts 22, 24 Sloboda 96 Artefakata 96 Function 218, 223, 234, 239999999, 301, 346 Intennt 235, 240 Exact28 System 28, 34 thick concept 303 thin concept 303 scheme scheme 303 Functional type 29, 34 Functional 234 Functional 302 Loose Solution 303

G-Genen 197 Genetic Code 237 Determinism 198 Technology 134 Enhancement 197 Reproduction 64 User Limitation Technology 135 Genetically Modified Foods 176 Globalization 176 Globalization 182 Doel 235, 240 Graves, Michael 323 Principles of Maximum Happiness 289 Guggenheim Museum, New York City 326 326

H Hadid、Zaha 290 Harvey、William 225 Health 289 Heidegger、Martin 161 Hooke、Robert 173 Housing 302、306

357 Human Biology 198 Dignity 198 Nature 198 System 262 Human Artificial Products Related 123 Humanity 210 Human 185, 191 Huxley, T.H.261

IHDE, DON 94 immortality 188, 201 immediate use 42 Information Society 187 Information Technology 156 Innovation 61, 252 Arts 274 Institute of Control 282 Institution 131 Institutes 131 Institutes 112, 308 Intellectual Ownership 136 intention 287, 23, 31, 31 Interpretation 73 Intensiveness 40 Intenationality9Design22, 31, 40, 43, 51, 106 artifact 93 intention 302 interface design 183 International Style 279 Internet 138 Intuitative Judgment 278

J Jacobs, Jane 350 Johnson, Deborah 12

K 改善 252 Kanda, Takayuki 146 Kant, Immanuel 180.342 Kroes, Peter 301

Latour, Bruno 92, 94, 97 leeks 128

358 Le Corbusier 7 Lessig, Lawrence 139 Linear perspective 287 Life experience 250

M Magie 184 Fire 27, 28, 34 People 210 and Difference 213 and Identity 214 and Connection 213 Marcuse, Herbert 137 Achievement 297 McDonough, William 254 Media Lab Europe 152 Meijers 92 Meijers, Anthony 301 Meyer, Hannes 69 Meme 69. Migiaia 160 MIT MITAMEDIA 160 MIT MEDIA Lab 152 Mitcham, Carl 154 Mokyr, Joel 66 Free Liberty of Moral Artifacts 93 Multi-Stable Technology Possibilities 54

N Nanotechnology 174 Natural Environment 341 species 27, 29 Laws 133 Systems 261 Nature 173, People 341 198 Products 276 New Urbanism 330 and Design 336 Nietzsche, Friedrich 193 Normal Configuration 79 Normalization of Deviations 124 Normative Practice 274 Ontological Technology 180

O Outdated Plan 139 Open Source 165 How It Works 79 Ingenuity 251

Index p perfist, Derek 30 Pelli, Cesar 290 Anthropomorphism 210 Physical Presentation 288 Populism 300 Posthumanism 187, 189, 198, 215 Pragmatism 295 Product, Nature 276273 Efficiency 279 Professional design 42 Licensing status 289 Progress 250 Prototype 236 Proximity to Designers 107 Public Choice 287 Nature Technology 125 Perception of reality 287 Atmosphere 334 Talk 298 Purpose 22, 24, 32, 218

R rationality39 regulation, zoning281 regulatory framework79 regulator276 reliability124 display290 politics of representation288 technology288 responsibility45, 86, 168 Ricoeur, Paul 216 risk acceptability119 burden of proof125 competition135 robotics143 emotional design149, 152 design 143

Comfort index 152 therapy 151 Rogers, Isaiah 275

S Security 78, 289 Science and technology research 8, 63, 105, 110 SCOT 63, 111 Self-organization 241 Serendipity 42 Singer, E. A. 223 Intelligent environment 176 Social psychology 148 Design of social systems 233, 242 Socio-technical systems 2, 9, 234 , 237, 260 Design 237 Software systems 242 Software 162 Technology 163 Types 187, 192 Diffusion 330 Star Architects 7, 289 Structural conservation and retrofit 282 STS 8, 63, 105, 110 Sublime 342 Durability 78 Systems 217- Man-made 262 Technology 8 , 219 Function28, 34 Man262 Nature261 Society233, 242 Society-Technology2, 9, 234, 237, 260 Soft242

Thacitno knowledge 123 Technological codes 115 Culture 120 Technological items 210 Technological change 61 Technological Determinism 250 Technological Development 247, 306 on discourse 248 Evolutionary metaphors 306 Mixed metaphors 306 Revolutionary metaphors 306

359 Technology Drift 250 Technical Expert 287 Technology Multi -State Ability 54 Charging 288 Gene Terminator 135 Evidence of Witnesses 46 Thompson, E. P. 132 Super Humanism 21111111, E. 260 Trust 88 Fixed 236, 238 Type Marks 27

In Pervasive Computing 176 Ultrasound 94 Confidentiality 175 Uncanny Valley 148, 155 Uncertainty, assessment 127 Uncertainty 33 Unexpected consequences 127 Urban design 9, 333, 349 and architecture 333 Usability 302 Planning use 26, 38 Use 22, 25, 39 , 301 Creativity 41 Irregularity 42 Utopia 333

V Ambiguity, Metaphysics 29 Infrastructure Value 265 Van der Rohe, Ludwig Mies 6 Vaughan, Diane 121 Vickers, Sir Geoffrey 262 Vincenty, W.G. 79 Vitruvius 319

W Weber, Max 177 Welfare 289 Wetmore, Jameson 12 Whistleblowers 5, 13 Wilderness 341 Winner, Langdon 92, 137

Z Rulebook on spatial arrangement 281

(Video) 5 Best Websites to download PhD Dissertation Thesis | Research Circle

FAQs

Where can I download free architecture books? ›

Sources of the Best Architecture Books:

Archive.org (All formats) [View / Download] Paperhouses.co (Various formats) [View / Download] Architecturecourses.org (Various formats) [View / Download] loyalbooks.com (Mp3, iTunes, M4B, RSS Feed, EPUB, Online Reading, PDB, MOBI, TXT) [View / Download]

Learn More Now ›

What is your design philosophy in architecture? ›

Your design philosophy summarizes the most important components of your plan: the who, what, where, when, why, and how. Gather decision makers and key stakeholders in a room, and discuss the following questions.

Read The Full Story ›

How is philosophy connected to architecture? ›

Philosophy is a part of the design, and architecture can evolve into space for the philosopher to develop thinking. The intellectual initiatives, which a thinker brings to architects clarify the concepts by locating the architect in the broader architectural thought framework.

What was Le Corbusier philosophy? ›

Le Corbusier's design philosophy

He advocated: The Pilotis – a grid of columns to replace load-bearing walls, allowing architects to make more use of floorspace. Free floor plans – flexible living spaces that could adapt to changing lifestyles, thanks to the absence of load-bearing walls.

Keep Reading ›

How to find free PDF books online? ›

8 Best Sites to Download Free PDF Books

Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg is a digital library that provides free access to over 60,000 ebooks, primarily literature, that are in the public domain. ...
Open Library. ...
Google Books. ...
ManyBooks. ...
Free-eBooks.net. ...
Bookboon. ...
Smashwords. ...
PDFBooksWorld.

Mar 19, 2023

Know More ›

How do I find free book downloads? ›

Free downloadable Ebook Websites

Free Ebooks.Net. This site has some free ebooks you can download or view on your computer. ...
Project Gutenberg. Project Gutenberg provides access to over 30,000 free ebooks that you can either view on your computer or download to a device. ...
Obooko. ...
Manybooks.net. ...
Scribd.

Feb 2, 2023

View Details ›

What are the three design philosophies? ›

3 Major Design Philosophies: Working Stress, Ultimate Load and Limit State.

Read On ›

What is Zaha Hadid's design philosophy? ›

Zaha Hadid's design philosophy

Hadid stated that her architectural designs were not intended as a personal stamp on the world, or an act of self-indulgence. Rather, addressing 21st-century challenges and opportunities is the cornerstone to Zaha Hadid's style and creations.

Learn More Now ›

How do you choose a design philosophy? ›

Step 1: Identify Core Values. Before writing your design principles, you need to identify the values essential for the success of your product or service. ...
Step 2: Consider How These Values Impact Users. ...
Step 3: Identify Any Common Tradeoffs. ...
Step 4: Write, Compare, and Iterate.

Aug 2, 2020

In what major branch of philosophy does architecture fall into? ›

Architecture can and has been conceived as an intrinsically philosophical enterprise—grounded in aesthetics and ethics (incluing theories of human nature)—and also in elements of social and political philosophy.

Keep Reading ›

Why is design philosophy important in architecture? ›

The importance of a great design philosophy.

A great design philosophy is woven directly into the project vision. The design philosophy defines how every aspect of a project is approached – from motivations, investment goals, regulations, to opportunities, and great aesthetics.

Discover More ›

What are the 5 rules of architecture? ›

In the course of his work as an architect, Le Corbusier developed a series of architectural principles, which he used as the basis of his designs. The design principles include the following five points by Le Corbusier: Pilotis (pillars), roof garden, open floor plan, long windows and open facades.

What was Frank Lloyd Wright's philosophy? ›

Wright believed in designing in harmony with humanity and the environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture. This philosophy was exemplified in Fallingwater (1935), which has been called "the best all-time work of American architecture".

Find Out More ›

What is Frank Gehry's design philosophy? ›

He believes that people are the most important thing in architecture. Thus, Gehry makes expressive buildings to humanize architecture, enrich the human experience, and create places that people like to be in. Gehry wants to inspire and move people with his designs.

Get More Info Here ›

Is it safe to download free PDF books? ›

Never download pirated eBooks. Always buy books and digital content from legitimate retailers. Unless it's from a trusted retailer, some ebooks may contain malicious software that can install malware, spyware, and viruses in your computer. Do not distribute ebooks unless the company or author allows it.

Discover More Details ›

Are free PDF books safe to download? ›

Is PDF Drive Safe? PDF Drive is generally safe in the sense that most users don't run into any problems on the site. However, it's better to err on the side of caution. PDF Drive is a publicly curated database – that means that most of the titles are sourced from users themselves.

Explore More ›

Is there a good free PDF reader? ›

PDF Reader Pro Free

PDF Reader Pro Free is the free version of the original software, and it allows you to view PDFs. It also has a tool allowing users to annotate their documents with either text or images, insert signatures and upload their documents to the cloud.

View Details ›

Is the Z Library legal? ›

The law of copyrights is inherently opposed to shadow libraries. As a result, Z-Library is an illegal website.

Discover More Details ›

What is a good free app to download free books? ›

List of the best apps

Google Play Books.
Wattpad.
Nook.
iBooks.
Aldiko Book Reader.
Amazon Kindle.

Read On ›

How do I download free books from Chrome? ›

Enter your author or work title in the search box. At the top of your result list, select the All prices pull down menu and select free.

What is the difference between design philosophy and design concept? ›

A design philosophy is more general and belief-oriented, while a design concept is more context-specific and application-oriented. The two are closely related, because the design concept stems from the design philosophy.

View Details ›

What is design philosophy in simple words? ›

A design philosophy is a step above your brand strategy and orients the team to aspirational goals so that every element of the customer experience is designed with clear intent.

Find Out More ›

What is the philosophy of simple design? ›

Simplicity

Strip things down to their essential, core purpose and you get the most fundamental, simplified version of the object. As Jonathan Ive, easily the best known proponent of simplicity in modern design, says: “Simplicity is not the absence of clutter, that's a consequence of simplicity.

Read The Full Story ›

Who is the wealthiest architect? ›

Lord Norman Foster is the most prosperous architect in the world, with a net worth of $240 million. He founded his well-known architectural firm Foster + Partners back in 1967, and he is known for his sleek glass and steel structures.

Philosophy and design: From engineering to architecture - Free download of PDF (2023)

FAQs

Where can I download free architecture books? ›

In what major branch of philosophy does architecture fall into? ›

How do I download free books from Chrome? ›